dation, is excellent, but the best results I have been able reproduce articulate speech. I regard the action as fol- with the carbon as in graphite, and, indeed, some of the best and thus under dilatation: Pine charcoal treated in this manner (although a non-con- I sound becomes. 00000 In the former case the electrical resistance would be less and in the latter case more than in the normal condition. Hence we should get variation in their electrical resistance, and thus sonorous waves could vary the strength of an electric current, and the variations of the electric current can be made to reproduce sonorous vibrations. These, how Reis, in 1860, showed how, by the movement of a dia- ever, would only produce the result in a certain line, say phragm, intermittent voltaic currents could be transmitted, horizontal; but those perpendicular, while producing the agreeing in exact number with the sonorous waves imping- same result, would be a half vibration behind, and thus if ing on the diaphragm, and thus reproducing music at a dis-two contacts, the one horizontal and the other perpendicutance by causing an electro-magnet to vibrate in unison with lar, were on the same piece of charcoal, and the conducting the diaphragm; and, with an iron diaphragm, Graham Bell trary takes place, as the more contacts we have, and the more line joined to both, we should have interference. The conshowed how the vibrations of that diaphragm in front of a varied their direction on the same, the louder and purer the polarized electro-magnet could similarly induce magnetocurrents, corresponding in number, amplitude, and form Hence there is no interference, and consewith the sonorous vibration, and thus reproduce all the deli- quently the whole mass must swell and diminish equally in all directions at the same instant of time. cacies of the human voice. Edison and others have produced variations in the strengths of a constant current by sists of an exterior glass tube two inches long and one quarter The tube transmitter, which I exhibit this evening, concausing the diaphragm to press directly upon some elastic of an inch in diameter. In it are four separate pieces of conductor, such as carbon, spongy platinum, etc., the vary willow charcoal, each one quarter of an inch long, and two ing pressure upon these materials varying the resistance of the circuit, and consequently the strength of current flow- terminals of the same material. The terminals are fastened ing. Graham Bell and others have produced the same effect, in the tube, and connect exteriorly with the line and inby causing the vibrations of the diaphragm to vary the elec: teriorly with the four loose pieces, thus: tromotive force in the circuit. It will be seen, however, that, in the experiments made by myself, the diaphragm has been altogether discarded, resting as it does upon the changes produced by molecular action, and that the variations in the strengths of the currents flowing are produced simply and solely by the direct effect of the sonorous vibrations. I have found that any sound, however feeble, produces vibrations which can be taken up by the matter interposed in the electrical circuit. Sounds absolutely inaudible to the human ear affect the resistance of the conductors described above. In practice, the effect is so sensitive that a slight touch on the board, by the finger nail, on which the transmitter is placed, or a mere touch with the soft part of a feather, would be distinctly heard at the receiving station. The movement of the softest camel hair brush on any part of the board is distinctly audible. If held in the hand, several feet from a piano, the whole chords-the highest as well as the lowest-can be distinctly heard at a distance. If one person sings a song, the distant station, provided with a similar transmitter, can sing and speak at the same time, and the sounds will be received loud enough for the person singing to follow the second speech or song sent from the distant end. A B C D E Fig. 2. F Here A is made to press on B, C, D, E, and F, until the resistance offered to the electrical current is about one-third that of the line upon which it is to be employed. It may be attached to a resonant board by the ends A or F. If the result was simply due to vibrations, we should have A and B making greater contact at a different time from E and F, and consequent interference. If it was a simple shaking or moving of B, C, D, E, and F, it could produce no change, as if B pressed more strongly on C, it would be less on A, and also if the tube was attached by the center we should have no effect; but if the effect is due to a swelling or enlargement of B, C, D, E, F, it would make no difference where it is attached to the resonant board, as is actually the case. Again reduce the pressure of A upon B, etc., until they are not in contact, and no trace of current can be perceived by shaking the tube. The instant the sonorous vibrations pass in the tube there is electric contact to a remarkable degree, which could only have taken place by the molecules enlarging their sphere under the influence of the sonorous vibrations. ORIGIN OF SOLAR AND SIDEREAL HEAT. By Prof. DANIEL KIRKWOOD. THE Quarterly Journal of Science for July, 1877, contains an able and interesting article by James Croll, LL.D., F.R.S., on the age and origin of the sun's heat. The theory of Dr. Croll may be regarded as a compromise between the mathematicians, represented by Thomson, Tait, and Newcomb, and the geologists of the uniformitarian school, represented by Playfair, Lyell, Darwin, etc. The principal points of this remarkable paper are: 1. That, as had been estimated by Sir William Thomson and others, but twenty million years' heat could be produced by the falling together of the sun's mass. 2. That not less than five hundred millions of years have been required for the stratification of the earth's crust at the present rate of subaerial denudation, and hence that the gravitation theory of the origin of the sun's heat is incompatible with geological facts. 3. If we suppose two solid opaque bodies, each equal to half the sun's mass, to fall together in consequence simply of their mutual attraction, the collision would instantly generate sufficient heat to reduce the entire mass to a state of vapor. If, in addition to the motion resulting from their mutual attraction, we suppose the bodies to have had an original or independent motion toward each other of 202 miles per second, the concussion would produce 50,000,000 years' heat; a motion of 678 miles per second, together with that due to their mutual attraction, would generate 200,000,000 years' heat; and a velocity of 1,700 miles per second would generate an amount of heat which would keep up the supply at the present rate for 800,000,000 years. heat from the collision of cold, opaque masses thus moving 4. The sun and all visible stars may have derived their in space. The nebulæ are the products of the more recent impacts, and the stars have been formed by the condensation of ancient nebulæ. 1. The existence of such sidereal bodies as the theory assumes is purely conjectural, unless it be claimed that lost or missing stars have become non-luminous, of which we have no conclusive evidence. 2. But, granting their existence, we have no instances of stellar motion comparable with those demanded by the hy pothesis, the velocity being in most cases less than 50 miles and in no case exceeding 200 miles per second. 3. If the two masses by whose collision the sun is supposed to have been formed were very unequal, as would be most probable, the amount of heat generated would be correspondingly less. 4. Such collisions as the theory assumes are wholly hypothetical. It is infinitely improbable that two cosmical bodies should move in the same straight line; and of two moving in different lines, it is improbable that either should impinge against the other. Comets pass round the sun without collision against it. 5. But, granting these difficulties removed, let us suppose Acting on these facts, I have also devised an instrument that about 800,000,000 years ago two cold, opaque bodies, suitable for magnifying weak sounds, which I call a microeach containing one-half the matter of the solar system, phone. The microphoue, in its present form, consists simply at the rate of 1,700 miles per second;* that on meeting, their were approaching one another in the same straight line, each of a lozenge-shaped piece of gas carbon, one inch long, quarter inch wide at its center, and one-eighth of an inch in thick- It is impossible to say what can be the applications or the motion was transformed into heat, and that their united ness. The lower pointed end rests as a pivot upon a small effects of the discovery which I have had the honor of mass was at once reduced to vapor, the great question yet block of similar carbon; the upper end, being made round, bringing before the Royal Society, for the whole question remains, How much of the period represented by these 800,plays free in a hole in a small carbon-block, similar to that has been studied with crude materials, and scarcely sufficient 000,000 years' heat can be claimed as geological time? The nebula formed by the collision would extend far beyond the at the lower end. The lozenge stands vertically upon its time has elapsed to enable me to consider its ultimate uses. lower support. The whole of the gas carbon is tempered I do not desire to assert that there is anything in what I have present orbit of Neptune. The amount of heat radiated in in mercury, in the way previously described, though this is brought forward that is superior to or equal to other transa given time from so vast a surface would doubtless be much not absolutely necessary. The form of the lozenge-shaped mitters used for telephony. It is as loud and far more greater than that now emitted in an equal period. No considcarbon is not of importance, provided the weight of this sensitive than any I have yet heard, and it may be increased erable contraction could occur until a large proportion of the upright contact piece is only just sufficient to make a feeble by multiplication of transmitting contacts in quantity or in-heat produced by the impact had been dissipated in space. contact by its own weight. Carbon is used in preference to tensity; the loudness is at present limited by the capability It has been shown by Trowbridget that, with a temperature any other material, as its surface does not oxidize. A plati- of the receiver. The materials at my disposal, and the ar- at the sun's surface of twice its present intensity, the solar num surface in a finely-divided state is equal, if not supe- rangement of them, have not yet been sufficiently studied. atmosphere would be expanded beyond the earth's orbit. rior, to the mercurized carbon, but more difficult and costly only wished to show that it is possible to transmit clear and The conclusion seems inevitable that much the greater part to construct. I have also made very sensitive ones entirely intelligent articulate speech, and to render audible sounds of the 800,000,000 years' heat must have been radiated into which have hitherto been inaudible by the mere operation space before the planets were separated from the solar mass, The best form and materials for this instrument, however, of sonorous vibrations upon the conducting power of matter. and, consequently, that the amount of geological time can have not yet been fully experimented on. Still, in its pres- My warmest thanks are due to Mr. W. H. Preece, elec- not, to any great extent, have exceeded the limits indicated ent shape, it is capable of detecting very faint sounds made trician to the Post Office, for his appreciation of the im- by the researches of Sir William Thomson. in its presence. If a pin, for instance, be laid upon or taken portance of the facts I have stated, and for his kind counsel mands of Dr. Croll's hypothesis than to believe that in former Upon the whole, it seems more difficult to grant the deoff a table, a distinct sound is emitted, or if a fly be confined and aid in the preparation of this paper. under a table-glass, we can hear the fly walking, with a I do not intend to take out a patent, as the facts I have ages the stratification of the earth's crust proceeded more peculiar tramp of its own. The beating of a pulse, the tick mentioned belong more to the domain of discovery than in- rapidly than at present. The former, as we have seen, has of a watch, the tramp of a fly, can thus be heard at least a vention. No doubt inventors will ere long improve on the no sufficient basis in the facts of observation. On the other hundred miles distant from the source of sound. In fact, form and materials employed. I have already my reward hand, if our planet has cooled down from a state of igneous when further developed by study, we may fairly look for it in being allowed to submit my researches to the Royal So- fluidity, the great heat of former times must doubtless have intensified both aqueous and atmospheric agencies in proto do for us, with regard to faint sounds, what the micro-ciety. scope does with matter too small for human vision. ducing modifications of the earth's exterior. - American Journal of Science and Arts. of iron. molecules of matter. I ELECTRIC LIGHT. M. PETROUCHEVSKY, Russia, has made some experiments (1.) Candles with Gypsum. It is quite evident that these effects are due to a difference of pressure at the different points of contact, and that they are dependent for the perfection of action upon the number of these points of contact. Moreover, they are not depend- with the Jablochkoff electric candle. He measured the inent upon any apparent difference in the bodies in contact, tensity of the light given by them. Two specimens of canbut the same body in a state of minute subdivision is equally dles were used for this purpose: (1) Candles in which the effective. Electrical resistance is a function of the mass of carbons were divided by gypsum; (2) candles with carbons the conductor, but sonorous conduction is a function of the divided by kaolin. Bunsen's photometer was used. The How is it therefore that a sonorous following are the results: wave can so affect the mass of a conductor as to influence its electrical resistance? If we assume a line of molecules, we know that a sonorous wave is accompanied by alternate compressions and rarefactions. If we isolate the part under compression from the part under dilatation we vary the dimensions of the mass, and we alter its electrical resistance. In any homogeneous conductor of finite dimensions the effect of the one will exactly compensate for the effect of the other, and we get no variation of current, but if we break up this homogeneous conductor into a series of minute subdivisions without actually breaking their electrical continuity, we destroy this neutralizing influence, and we render evident the effect of sonorous vibrations in varying the dimensions of the mass of the conductor, and, therefore, in varying its These experiments show that it is better to divide the carelectrical resistance, for we reduce the length of a portion of bons of the candles by gypsum; but it was also remarked the conductor to a fraction of the length of a sonorous wave. that the light produced by candles with kaolin has more Molecular action alone explains to me all the effects pro- steadiness and is more agreeable. During these experiments duced. Size or shape does not affect them. A piece of wil- one of Gramme's small magneto-electric machines was in low charcoal, the size of a pin's head, is quite sufficient to use. THE working out of the results obtained by the transit of Venus expeditions sent out by the German government were expected to have been far enough advanced for publication in the year 1877, but it has been found that this task causes more difficulties and expense than had been at first anticipated, and a demand has been consequently made for an extra credit of £500 to defray the additional costs.-Engineer. SPONTANEOUS combustion of substances can only take place when they are so packed that small increments of heat may be stored up. If they are freely exposed to the air the heat evolving action which goes on with it may be increased rapidly; but its effect is dissipated. PHOTOGRAPHY by electric light is again occupying atten tion in London, and, it is said, successfully in portrait work, the electric light being thrown from a parabolic reflector through a Fresnel lens upon the sitter. The light is soft and uniform. This is the greatest velocity mentioned by Dr. Croll. An increased rate of motion would, of course, produce more heat, but the hypothesis + Proc. Am. Phil. Soc., vol. xvi., pp. 329-333, and National Quarterly ERGOT. By W. CARRUTHERS, F.R.S. ERGOT has been observed on a large number of our native and cultivated grasses, as well as on our cereal crops. The grasses that are most subject to its attacks are rye-grass (Lolium perenne, Linn.); the brome-grasses (Bromus secalinus, Linn., B. mollis, Linn., B. Pratensis, Ehr.); couch grass (Triticum repens, Linn.); foxtail grass (Alopecurus pratensis, Linn.); timothy grass (Phleum pratense, Linn.); fescue grass (Festuca elatior, Linn.); barley grass (Hordium murinum, Linn.); and manna grass (Glyceria fluitans R. Br.). With the view of enabling the reader to recognize this pest, which is made too little account of by agriculturists, I have given a number of engravings from remarkably accurate but till now unpublished drawings of its appearance on different plants, made by Francis Bauer, who for several years carefully observed this disease when he was connected with the Royal Gardens at Kew as botanical draughtsman. The appearance of ergot in rye-grass is well known. A greatly affected head is shown is Fig. 4 of the variety of darnel (Lolium temulentum, Linn.), with very short awns, or altogether without them, which Withering separated as a distinct species, giving to it the name of Lolium arvense. Improved husbandry has made this a comparatively rare grass in cultivated fields, where it is of little value as a forage plant, though not so injurious as it has been called; indeed, recent experiments make it almost certain that the evils reported and believed to have been produced by the use of darnel have been really cause by the unobserved ergot. The frequency with which rye-grass is attacked has often been noticed. Edward Carroll says he never failed to discover it more or less ergotted in fields allowed to stand for seed, and he adds, what appears to be opposed to general experience, that its extent is in proportion to the wet or dry state of the summer months during its maturation, being rarer when wet, frequent when dry. The probable explanation of this reversing of the experience in England and the Continent is that it is due to the normal moist atmosphere of Ireland, where Mr. Carroll made his observations, being fitted for the germination of the spores of fungi, while rain would wash the spores off the plants, and a superabundance of water would be unfavorable to their growth. A head of timothy grass (Phleum pratense, Linn.) is repre withered styles, and forming below the homogeneous sclero-early sphacelia state. Every one of the "spores" (sperma- When the ergot attains its full size the sphacelia disap- The further history of the ergot has been determined also The plant is carried over the winter in the dormant ergot THE CATALPA. THE great value of the catalpa tree is not appreciated by our farmers. Its cultivation should not be left to nurserymen, who grow it only to keep up their stock of trees intended exclusively for ornamental purposes. It is well enough, ears. sented in Fig. 1 with an extraordinary number of ergotted it is fully ripe, falls to the ground during the operations of perhaps, to plant it along the edges of sidewalks in cities as This grass forms a considerable portion of the late the harvest, or by the friction of the spikes against each a shade tree, though there are others which are more desirmeadow crops in many districts. other through the action of the wind. These ergots remain able. True, its blossoms are beautiful, and, during the I have already in the darnel figured the ergot in a weed in on the ground during the winter without undergoing any period of its blooming, it is pleasant to look upon, and, cultivated grounds; and in the barley grass (Hordeum muri- change. They are dormant, like the seeds of plants, until when the flowers fall and cover the pavement, the effect of num, Linn.) (Fig. 2) we have it on one of the most common the following spring or summer, when they produce crops such a shower of beauty is recognized by every one who annual grass weeds of our roadsides and waste places. Al- of the perfect fungus (Claviceps purpurea, Tul.). The crushes the blossoms at every step as he passes beneath the though this is a worthless weed, as it is rejected even by the spores of the Claviceps are ripe about the time that the ce- tree. But this is an evanescent glory, though it makes one half-starved animals that feed by the roadside, it may be reals come into flower, and by the action of wind or rain of the delights of springtime. The catalpa is lazy, and actively injurious to the agriculturist if it is to any extent a they obtain access to the flowers. hangs back and dallies with the season. It is late in putting nidus for the growth of ergot. In 1856 Durieu communicated ergot to rye by placing the forth its broad leaves, and the first frost curls, shrivels, and spores of the Claviceps on its flowers. Roze has since con- blackens them. They soon fall to the ground, and leave the firmed and extended these observations (Bulletin Soc. Bot. de branches which bore them naked and forlorn. France, 1870). Numerous other illustrations might be given, but our fig. ures of the ergot, as it appears in cereals and in pasture and weed grasses, are sufficient to show the general aspect of this parasitic fungus, and to enable the reader easily to detect it. But farmers being practical people, anxious to make It is, then, by these minute needle-like spores that the money, and willing, as a rule, to do just that which will lead disease is communicated at first to all crops; and the princi- to such a result, do not care so much for the blossoms and No farm or district has any right to hope for exemption pal effort of the farmer who desires to free himself from this the foliage of a forest tree, so that they realize profit from the from this dangerous pest. It may not have been noticed, or pest should be to secure clean seed perfectly free from ergot. wood it produces. To them the catalpa is invaluable. They it may have actually been absent for many years, yet it may The ergot is too frequently overlooked in the barn from its ought to consider this fact with careful attention. The sud lenly, without any obvious cause, appear in great abun- resemblance to the dung of mice; but it is worth special wood of this tree is practically indestructible, so far as wear dance and prove a cause of serious destruction to the cattle or pains in examining the seed to secure immunity from this and tear from exposure is concerned. It don't rot, whether shep placed in the field where its presence is not suspected. parasite. Tulasne states as the results of his experiments in the ground or out of it. Once set as a fence post, it stands The true nature of ergot was at length determined by ob- that if the ergot does not produce the Claviceps during the unaffected by the influences which cause all other posts, ex servations first made on its early history and development on first year after it has fallen to the ground, it loses its vital cept cedar, to rot and fall. Fifty years may pass away and the diseased plants, and then by experiments on the ergot it-powers. One might hope to find in this observation of the catalpa post will still be fit for duty and hold its place self, with the view of determining its ultimate product. In Tulasne the means of coping with the disease; and certainly firmly. When the young tree is only two years old and both directions the most satisfactory results have been ar- it is most desirable not to follow an ergotted crop with attains the size of a medium hop -pole, it can be cut for bean rived at, and we now know the complete history of the another crop of cereals. But it must be remembered that and hoop-poles, or for any other purpose for which a stake plant. the same species of fungus produces an ergot in most of our of that diameter is needed. A farmer in an adjacent county In its earliest condition this parasitic fungus escapes no- grasses, and that the spores belonging to the Claviceps of has catalpa bean poles which he has had in use for ten years, tice, being composed of a large number of very small elon- these grass ergots will as readily communicate the disease to and they are as sound now as on the day on which they gated cells borne in a colorless liquid. In about three days cereals as those produced by the cereals themselves. We were first cut. So that in the infancy of the tree its usefulafter the plant is attacked the ergot becomes visible, appear may, therefore, have in ergotted grasses growing in the ness begins and the young wood will continue to be serviceing as a yellowish viscous substance resting on the margin of fields or along hedgebanks the means of maintain- able for more than half a century afterward. outer coating of the as yet undeveloped attacked grain (Fig. ing and spreading the disease in cereal crops. No trouble As to the propagation of the catalpa, that is easy. It has 3). It exudes from between the glumes and more or less should be spared to collect and destroy the ergots on such a peculiar talent for starting into life when the seed is placed completely covers the whole seed. It has a taste like honey grasses. To permit them to fall to the ground is a certain in the ground. A small quantity of seed and very little and an odor like that of grated bones. The ears naturally method of securing the appearance of the disease on any labor would give to every farmer an acre of trees from which attacked do not belong to less vigorous or healthy plants cereal or grass crops in the neighborhood in the following he could soon draw supplies for stakes, poles, and fence posts. It takes years of course to produce a tree that will be Once established, the fungus rapidly develops, carrying But the disease having once appeared in a field of growing valuable for timber. But when the grove of catalpas is upward the aborted remains of the seed, crowned with the grain, or among hay or grass, easily spreads itself in its fairly set for timber purposes, it takes no labor to keep it than those that escape. year. growing, and the land is increased in value year by year, from the very fact that it has one, two or ten acres devoted to the catalpa. And as the importance of the tree for timber comes to be appreciated, as it is sure to be, by just so much will the value of the land be enhanced. For culverts, bridges and all other exposed structures the time is coming when the catalpa will be eagerly sought for, because when once placed in position it can be relied upon to stay there unaffected by sunshine or moisture for fifty years at least, and it would not be extravagant to say a full century. At least such is the testimony of persons who have had opportunities of seeing it stand sound and firm during their life-time, and to have heard of its endurance from their fathers, who knew the identical log or post as sound and serviceable since their earliest boyhood. The farmers' clubs all over the State should consider this question of growing the catalpa, as it is one of great practical utility and of absolute profit to landowners. Mr. E. E. Barney, of this city, has taken great pains to collect information concerning the growth of the catalpa. The results: of his inquiries and the observation of those who can trace the history of certain catalpa posts and logs for a full century show clearly enough that its great value is established, though a general knowledge of that fact is not generally disseminated. It should be the special object of the farmers' clubs to open up the way for the cultivation of this valuable tree by discussing its qualities and considering the profit arising from such cultivation. -Dayton Journal. BELGIAN OPINIONS ON ENGLISH SHORT-HORNS. LAST year a party of Belgian landowners visited England for the purpose of studying the merits or defects of the short-horn breed of cattle. On their return home they published an account of their investigations, and we are indebted to the Agricultural Gazette for the following summary of their report: The Provincial Council of East Flanders had decided in July last not to give any further encouragement to the introduction into that country of Durham bulls to cross with the native breed of cattle. In making this decision they had been influenced by a pamphlet published by the president of the agricultural committee of the province, in which it was stated that in England "the Durham race was only maintained by an abundant diet of oilcake and flour, of barley and oats; that the finest young cattle, male and female, of eighteen months to two years old, when placed in the richest pastures, still received their daily feed of corn; that the Durham race is considered as a machine for producing tallow and flesh, but has no aptitude for producing milk, cows of this breed unable to rear their calves being met with; indeed, that Durham beasts were but empty vessels, inflated beasts, laden with fat on the outside, but with beef very inferior in quality to that of our native breed of cattle." A copy of this pamphlet being sent to Mr. H. M. Jenkins, the able secretary of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, and his opinion invited, he replied "that short-horns had never been more appreciated in England than at present; that although their special merit was early maturity, a shorthorn beast being sold to the butcher at two years old, while a Dutch beast was not killed until four years old, the quality of beef of the short-horn was not surpassed by that of any other breed; that it was true the production of meat had been more studied than the production of milk, but that there were among short-horns some most excellent milking cows. "Mr. Jenkins gave us," we continue our extract, a pressing invitation to come to England with some of our friends. He traced out for us an excursion on the farms of some of the principal cattle breeders, and finished his letter by saying, When you have made the farming tour that I have arranged for you, you will be convinced that cows of this breed are in no way behind the best milking races of the Continent."" stud of heavy horses and collection of pigs in England. In "The meadows in England are attended to in a partic- tion. "This journey enables us to make deliberately, and with confidence, the following assertions: From Manchester they proceeded to Lancaster, and the next morning went to Holker to see the Duke of Devonshire's most valuable short-horn herd. The beauty of the "1. That the short-horn race is composed of two varieties, route by rail by Arkholme, Carnforth, and Grange, with the quite distinct, and which must not be confounded-the one sea on one side and the hills clothed with verdure on the for the production of milk, the other for the production of other, is dwelt upon. Conveyed to Holker in the duke's meat. carriages, they were received by his secretary in the absence "2. That in the one, as in the other variety, pure bred of Mr. Drury, and proceeded to inspect the 300 head of animals, both male and female, are in general superior to short-horns, all of which they remark are of good pedigree that of all other races. and great value. "3. That they are very precocious, and qualified, though The duke, they add, finds great satisfaction in occupy-in different degrees, for fattening at every age, being reing himself with everything relating to agricultural industry. markably adapted for this purpose. During the whole period of his annual stay at Holker, there is not a day that he does not visit his farms and his gardens, at one time discoursing with a laborer, at another time with a farmer on his large domains, encouraging some, giving words of counsel to others, and finding for everyone a pleasant word. "The greater number of laborers who are in the duke's service live in pretty cottages surrounded by gardens, kept be taken as models by our rich proprietors on the Continent, in beautiful order. These great English noblemen ought to who too often allow their laborers and farmers to live in miserable habitations. This farm, situated at Warlaby, in the midst of a fertile "4. That the short-horn race, with a good pedigree, not otherwise, is a race essentially qualified to transmit its qualities to other races. "5. Finally, that this race deserves to be bred with care, and actively propagated, not only for its own multiplication, but in order, by means of crossing, to improve those faculties which are not sufficiently developed in our own indigenous race. BROOD MARES AND FOALS. THE veterinary editor of the North British Agriculturist, in Everything denotes that in England agriculture is held replying to a correspondent who had requested information in great honor. At the railway stations numbers of books on the management of brood mares and foals, says: "Horse are sold on agricultural subjects, one of which we bought, breeders and farmers generally have a tolerably good idea as and intend to translate by and by." to the best management of their studs; but, like other erring After having passed in review the cattle at Holker, the pro-mortals, do not always act up to their knowledge. Knowduction of milk from the best milking cows of which was ing what is right, they are prone, from want of thought and said to be equal, if not superior, to that indicated by Mr. avoidance of trouble, to do what is wrong. To a few of the Carrington, the park, abounding with deer, was crossed, and more common shortcomings in this department we endeavor the gardens and vineries were visited--the fine timber, the briefly to advert. The mare far advanced in pregnancy large bunches of grapes, and the splendid view of the sea sometimes continues tied up in her stall in a crowded stable, from the terrace being specially admired. It now remained instead of enjoying the room, quiet, and comfort of a good for them to visit the farm of Mr. T. C. Booth, the most cele-box; and thus are increased the risks of accidents from other brated breeder in England, which Mr. Jenkins had purposely horses, and from getting cast in the stall, while the unwieldy reserved for the last visit. mare, finding it difficult to lie down and get up in a narrow stall, is apt to stand persistently, to the detriment of her legs and her strength. Most mares during the last month of pregnancy are unfit for anything like work; but if not worked gently, they require regular exercise in a yard or paddock, or by being led about. The feeding is very important. It must not be too bulky to swell out the digestive organs, and thus diminish the amount of room needed by the foal; it must be sufficiently nutritive to sustain properly both mother and offspring; it must be rather laxative, so as to counteract the tendency to constipation, which is a serious matter when parturition arrives, and then is apt to cause straining and eversion of the uterus and other mischief. From causes not always explicable, the foal sometimes comes in a wrong posi tion; the head is occasionally thrown backward, turned to the side, or down below the brim of the pelvis. Such misadventures are sometimes traceable to the mare having been knocked about, frightened, cast in her stall, or foaling having been brought on prematurely, and are more difficult to rectify in the mare than in the cow, for the mare strains violently, so that the requisite turning and proper placing of the foal for delivery is sometimes almost impossible, and, even with the administration of chloroform, the mare's life has often in such cases to be preserved at the sacrifice of the foetus. As to the ailments from which your mares suffer after foaling, inf'ar ntion and internal hemorrhage, about which you inquire, are fortunately rare. Exhaustion, the result of a very hard parturition, or of previous overwork or insufficient feeding, is combated by digestible, easily assimilated food, and a pint of good ale rej cated twice daily. A good many both of draught a lighter-bred foals are lost from their not taking to the teat. The mares are sometime troublesome or vicious, their udders are tender, their teats painful, and they strike out whenever the foal's nose touches the flank. A fidgety mare, and awkward or weakly foal, will often seriously try a man's patience for many hours until the foal is got to suck; and to save the foal it must be raised, and thus fed at lest four times a day. Such help may continue to be requisite for a week; the mare's bag the mean. while, if tender, must be rubbed with oil, and the teats damped with some mild astringent lotion. As to the examination of the milk, its physical and even its chemical cl aracters do not always tell whether it will agree with the young foal, whose thriving will, however, soon indicate the cordi tion of the milk. If faulty on one side, it will be so on the other. Foals sometimes scour, and die from the milk of mares in high condition, being too rich for the young animals, and in such cases it is wisdom for a week after parturition to withhold the corn or other such concentrated food, or greatly reduce its amount, and feed the mare mainly on mashes, hay, or grass. Occasionally the milk of bountiful mothers disagrees from its being secreted in larger amount than the young foal can take; it gets stale; and if the udder is not en ptied several times a day, the foal scours. When the mother's The system of cattle management at Warlaby is described. milk disagrees, the first thing to be done is to change her Mr. Booth rears all his calves except defective animals, food; if on dry fare, give her grass; if she has had mainly which are fattened and sold to the butcher. The bulls reared grass, give her dry food. A pint of barley supplied to the for stock purposes are kept in boxes until twelve or fourteen mare sometimes arrests scouring of the foal. If change of months old, when they are let out on hire yearly until they feeding, and removing night and morning any milk remainare too heavy or unprolific. There were 40 bulls belonging ing in the udder, does not mend matters, and the foal does to Mr. Booth from twelve months to ten or twelve years old. not thrive, or continues to purge, it must be tried with other The young bulls all had the mark of setons, which it is the food. Fresh cow's milk, diluted with about one-fourth part custom to put in to prevent the black-quarter. Mr. Booth of water, and sweetened with an ounce of sugar to the quart, impressed upon his visitors the necessity of attention to pedi- is a safe substitute for the mother's milk. Where the patient They quote Mr. Carrington's opinion that the Durham gree in buying bulls to improve other stock, as it is only bulls gets weak, a little wine and water, brandy and water, eggbreed of cattle is the best race of cattle for milking purposes of good pedigree which can be depended upon to transmit flip or beef-tea is requisite. While the foal is thus nurtured when cultivated for that end, and describe some of the de- their qualities to their descendants. artificially for a week or ten days, endeavor should be made tails of his management of dairy cattle. They remark that After accepting freely of Mr. Booth's hospitality, and being to keep up the secretion of the mare's milk by milking her while in winter the milk is sent every night to London, to be thus convinced of the excellence of short-horn beef, they at least twice daily, or getting the bag emptied by another sold there pure the following morning, in summer Mr. Car- were each presented with a picture of that charming cow, foal with which the milk may not disagree. The natural rington applies himself to the manufacture of fromage de Lady Fragrance, so well remembered by us as she stood in food, after an interval of ten days, may be found not to Chester (many foreigners apply this term to all English the Royal" show-yard at Leicester, and bid farewell to injure the foal, especially if return to it is made gradcheese), so highly appreciated both in England and abroad. their host, an excellent photograph of whom is placed at the ually." Having passed three hours on the farm, they inspected the beginning of this book. dairy and cheese-room, being there not less interested than Thus terminated a journey with which we have all reason to be particularly satisfied." The journey was determined upon, and a dozen travelers -among whom were the President and Secretary of the Agricultural Society of East Flanders, MM. le Baron Favereau, Vice-President of the Eastern Agricultural Society; O. De Kerchove de Denterghem, President of Agricultural Section de Saffelaere, etc.-started upon what proved to them "the most interesting agricultural tour it is possible to imagine." The first farm visited was Mr. Aylmer's, of West Durham, Norfolk. They walked over his pastures, remarking the vigorous growth resulting from top-dressings of nitrate of soda and superphosphate of lime, and inspecting his fine herd of 170 short-horn beasts, his flock of about 1,000 longwooled Lincoln sheep, his 40 horses, and his pigs. The method of rearing and feeding Mr. Aylmer's short-horns, which are bred principally for beef purposes, is described. The horses are much admired. The precocity of the shortnosed pigs of the Prince Consort's breed astonished them. "We saw one less than 7 months old, a complete cushion of fat and flesh, in which one could scarcely discover the head or the legs. Several couples of pigs were purchased, surprise being expressed that this breed had not before been introduced into Belgium From West Durham they traveled to Leicester, and the following morning to the large dairy farms of Mr. W. T. Carrington, of Croxden Abbey, Staffs. They remark that Mr. Carrington's special business being cheese-making, he seeks to have the best milking cows. These animals have a conformation quite different to those of Mr. Aylmer, in breeding which everything is sacrificed to the production of fat and flesh upon the shoulders, the back, and the haunches; here, on the contrary, the first consideration is the development of the milking qualifications, the lactiferous veins, the udder, and the escutcheon. To see these fine cows, one would take them for Dutch cows. if they had not a much wider development of the haunches, and if one did not always find them in a state of plumpness, which passes into complete fatness very soon after they have ceased to give milk." on the farm. 66 They remark upon "the great marks of constitution and vital force in Mr. Booth's cattle; their power of assimilating nourishment quickly and completely; their precocity, the heifers when placed with the bull at 14 months old being stronger and better developed than our heifers of three years old;" upon the increased development of those parts of the body where the best beef is found, and the diminution of bone and of the worthless parts of the animal. One of our party remarking that it had been pretended in Belgium that the meat of short-horns was not equal to that of other breeds, Mr. Booth replied that short horns had their detractors even in England, but that short-horns had been compared on many occasions with other races, but had never been judged inferior, either as to weight of inside fat or quality of beef; but you will have an opportunity of judging for yourselves,' said he, if you will accept the luncheon which presently I shall offer to you." Mr. Booth then showed them one of his best milking cows, which gives after calving nearly 8 gallons of milk, and keeps up her extraordinary production sometimes for three months. This cow has a less taking appearance than the others, and her calves, though quite as well bred, are not as much sought after by purchasers. Mr. Booth pointed out to them in this cow the great distance from the eyes to the muzzle, which he considers a strong mark of a good milking cow. 66 From Croxden Abbey they proceeded via Derby and Bux- A few general remarks and conclusions are added, which remarked. THE damage done to the mulberry trees by the last frost appears to be greater than was supposed in the first instance. In France the foliage is more backward than the worms, and in some cases of premature development it has been necessary to throw away the latter in consequence of a want of food supply; but it is only during the last week that the great majority of French cultivators have begun to hatch. In Spain the worms are progressing favorably, and the news from Italy is not adverse. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN CHESS RECORD. [All contributions intended for this department may be addressed to SAMUEL LOYD, Elizabeth, N. J.] CHESS ON THE STAGE. IN SUPPLEMENT No. 121 we gave a short account of living chessmen. We recollect the following further particulars in that curious London journal, Notes and Queries: Some fifteen or sixteen years since, on the opening of the Lowther Rooms, in King William street, Strand, since the BY MISS M. RUDGE. temporary chapel of the Oratorians, and still more recently occupied as Mr. Woodin's Polygraphic Hall, there was a large chessboard laid on the floor, and men and women, dressed as pawns and pieces, were in attendance for the use of those who might choose to play at what was termed "living chess." The manner was as follows: The players were mounted, in two boxes, something like pulpits, and directed the living chessmen to move, or take an opponent, which was always conducted by an encounter of weapons, and the defeated person driven off the board. The charge was five shillings each player per game, and the public were admitted at one shilling each as spectators. GIUOCO PIANO. MR. F. C. COLLINS. BLACK. 1. P to K 4 4. Kt to K B3 6. P to Q 4 7. K Kt to K 5 8. P x B (a) 9. Castles. 10. B to Q2 11. Q to K 2 12. P to KB3 13. KRX P 14. QR to K B sq (b) 17. B to K5 18. Q to Q 2 22. Q to Q 3 23. Rx P 24. Q x R 29. R to B sq And the game was given up as drawn. (a) So far all is "book." (b) R to K sq looks stronger, threatening to win a pawn at least. (c) Why not R take P? (d) R to Kt 3 seems more attacking. MISS M. RUDGE, OF LEOMINSTER, ENGLAND. cess, although performances of this kind have been of fre- In the early part of the seventeenth century chess made "What of the game, called chess play, can be made It abounds in such stage directions as "enter White "The sting of conscience Afflicts me so for that inhumane violence In another part of the comedy the Black Knight assaults manner: "Make thy selfe ready for perdition, There's no remove in all the game to 'scape it; White. White to play and mate in four moves. It seems to have been a sort of bitter religious satire, which, being offensive to the partisans of the Catholic Church, James I. suppressed it, and the unlucky author was committed to prison, where he remained until the following whimsical petition to the chess loving monarch procured his release: "A harmless game, coin'd only for delight, Was played 'twixt the black house and the white. DUBUQUE TOURNEYS NOS. 4 AND 5. IN concluding the record of these interesting and agreeable tournaments of Prof. Brownson, we must again remark that the conditions as well as data of the tournaments are not clearly stated in the Tournament Book, and we can only surmise that the tournaments were inaugurated in the spring of 1871. In Tournament No. Four, the first prize was awarded to a most clever composition by W. A. Shinkman, to which we call the especial attention of our solvers. The second and third prizes were awarded to two of our old friends, and the fourth to Rev. L. W. Mudge, as given in SUPPLEMENT No. 105. ENIGMA NO. 54-By C. H. GILBERG. Second Prize. White.-K on QB sq, R Q B5, Bs K R2 and Q sq, Kts Q Kt 4 and Q 7, Ps Q R 3 and Q 3. Black.-K Q5, RKR 3, BsQ Kt 2 and K B 3, Ps Q R 2, Q Kt 4, K6, K B 6 and 7, and K Kt 2. White to play and mate in three moves. ENIGMA No. 55.-By G. E. CARPENTER. Third Prize. White.-K on QR4, Q Q 2, BQ R 3, Kts K Kt 2 and K R7, Ps Q Kt 2, KB 4 and KR 3. Black.-K K B 6, Q K Kt sq, R K R sq, B K Kt 8, Kt Q Kt sq, Ps Q Kt 5 and 6, QB 7, Q 4 and 6, K 6 and K B 4. White mates in seventeen moves. absurd stipulations of "white to play so as to allow black to Tourney No. Four seems to have been based upon two mate, and white to retract his last move and mate," whied ideas were first suggested in a burlesque sketch contributed by us to the Chess Monthly twenty years ago. Both the first prizes were awarded to Shinkman, the second prizes to Shinkman and T. M. Brown, but the positions are not worth preserving. |
