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Besides, to prevent the suppression of the insurrections in Italy, the French would have to march through Switzerland and Piedmont, thus violating the territory of two neutral nations, and probably provoking war with one or both of the Swiss and Sardinian governments, as well as with Austria. That is to say, France, attacking Austria in behalf of the Italians, would have given the signal of a general war throughout Europe.

Meanwhile the Pope proceeded to introduce some changes in the fiscal administration of the Roman States, useful, undoubtedly, in the main, but wholly insufficient to quiet or satisfy the discontented inhabitants. Agitation still continued to pervade the Legations, although it did not reach the rest of Italy. In the midst of the disturbances, Charles Joseph, King of Sardinia, died, to be succeeded by the Prince of Carignan, who, by some strange accident, had found himself at the head of the Piedmontese constitutional party in 1821, but who now retained none of the liberal propensities, by which he was then distinguished. The advance of the Austrian troops into Romagna filled with disquietude all those, who, desiring peace in Europe, anxiously apprehended war at every military demonstration on the part of either of the great powers; but these expectations were not realized; for the Austrian troops returned, after having accomplished their object, without giving to France time or opportunity for warlike interposition, had the disposition to undertake this existed. Nevertheless, the example of such open disregard, by Austria, of the principle of non-intervention, was not without its effect upon the King of the French.

This appeared in a measure, which nothing but the peculiar circumstances of Italy, and the peculiar relation of France towards it, could have

prompted or defended. On the 22nd of February 1832, a considerable body of French troops was disembarked at Ancona, and proceeded to take possession of the citadel, in spite of the remonstrances and opposition of the Papal authorities. It was a significant intimation to Austria that the game of intervention had two sides; and that France was not disposed to see her rule in Romagna as she did in Lombardy and Venice. Yet what could so small a force as 1500 men effect, in case of war, against the numerous army of the Austrians in upper Italy? Clearly nothing; and little else, indeed, in time of peace, except, in aiding the Pope in the preservation of order, to see at the same time that the preservation of order was not made the pretext of persecuting and tyrannizing over the people; and then to withdraw, when the shifting lights of European policy should lead the cabinet of Louis Philippe to leave the Italians to conduct their own affairs.

What may be in store for Italy, at the present time, it is impossible to predict. Her political condition can change only with one of those great convulsions, which from time to time agitate the whole European Republic. The iron hand of Austria is too heavy upon her, for the regeneration of Italy to take place in front of such combinations of conservative influence, as now pervade and control the Peninsula, from Piedmont to Calabria. It is the darling hope, of the Italians, to see the different States of their beautiful country united in a well devised federal league, adapted to their own situation, and built upon those principles of representative freedom, which are so nobly exemplified in the Constitution of the United States. But there is nothing, in the present aspect of affairs, to encourage expectations of the speedy attainment of so desirable a consummation.

mestic prosperity and external respectability of the Republic. Industry will now be made to flourish under the same free principles, which have fostered it in this country. The physical

force of Switzerland will become attached to institutions so liberal and equal as those under consideration, and the inhabitants of the Alps will thus be rendered more capable of defending their mountain-passes against foreign aggression, and of making a stand, if need be, for the liberties of Europe.

CHAPTER IX.

Italy.--Retrospect.-Capabilities of Italy.-Napoleon.-Foreign Interferences.-Interferences.-Romagna.--Conduct of Austria.-France.-Conclusion.

'ITALY is crushed, but her heart still beats with the love of liberty, virtue, and glory; she is chained and covered with blood, but she still knows her strength, and her future destiny; she is insulted by those for whom she has opened the way to every improvement, but she feels that she is formed to take the lead again; and Europe will know no repose till the nation, which, in the dark ages, lighted the torch of civilization with that of liberty, shall be enabled herself to enjoy the light which she created.' These are the words of one of the most justly preeminent historians and publicists of modern Europe, who honors, in other languages and lands, the country of his ancestors; and he describes, in phraseology as true as it is energetic, the actual condition of Italy and the Italians.*

* Sismondi's History of the Italian Republics, p 299.

After having outstripped every other country of modern times in the rapidity of its recovery from the disastrous effects of the general irruption of the Barbarians into the heart of the Roman Empire, after redeeming, in fact, Christian Europe from the ignorance and brutality of the middle age, and becoming once again the seat of arts, literature, and refinement,-Italy became a second time the prey of the Germans, Franks, and Goths, by reason of circumstances not dissimilar to those, which enabled ancient Rome to impose her, yoke upon the republics of ancient Greece. When Charles VIII invaded Italy in the fifteenth century, avowedly to assert the claims of the House of Anjou to the throne of Naples, he found a people not less brave than his own followers, nor less familiar with the art of war, although abounding in the moveable wealth and the luxuries of life, which as yet were imperfectly known to France. But the Italians were divided among themselves; their physical energies were not centralized and combined, so as to be made to act efficaciously upon a given point; the glorious Republics, which had rendered the name of Liberty once more dear upon earth, had mostly fallen into the hands of individual chiefs or particular families; and meanwhile in France, as also in Germany and Spain, the monarchical principle had risen triumphant upon the weakness of the feudal system, so as to impart unity and concentrated activity to the great States in the neighborhood of Italy. Of course, the French, having once crossed the barrier Alps, rushed from Milan to Naples almost unopposed by the inhabitants, and in a single campaign unfolded to the world the feebleness and the riches of the whole country. Neither Spain nor Germany could fail to be attracted by the example of successful invasion. Gonzalo de Cordoba soon

FORMATION OF THE EMPIRE.

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One portion, bounded by the sea on the west, and on the east by a line running nearly north and south, from the Mediterranean, by the Rhone, the Saône, and the Meuse to the coast of Belgium, comprising part of Spain, nearly the whole of France, and part of the Netherlands, was assigned to Charles, as King of the Franks. Another portion, consisting of the entire country east of the Rhine, fell to Louis, with the title of King of Germany. The long intermediate strip, including Italy and Switzerland, and stretching up between the Rhine on one side, and the Rhone, Saône, and Meuse on the other, into the Netherlands, was conferred on Lothaire, with the title of King of Italy and Emperor. After some fluctuations in the possession of this name, and of Italy,which seems to have been considered essentially connected with it, they were bothfinally fixed in the German branch by the talents of the princes of the House of Saxony, who, the family of Charlemagne having become extinct, ascended, the throne by right of election, Otho the Great being formally consecrated at Rome (an. 961), and assuming the title of Cæsar Augustus.

Thus, then, we have the name of Empire and Emperor established in Germany, the Empire consisting of the original Kingdom of Germany, with such accessions as it had gained from conquest or otherwise, and the Emperor being an elective prince, deriving his power from the free suffrages of the entire German people. It was in this manner that Conrad of Franconia, on the deathof the last German prince of the family of Charlemagne, became King of Germany, as also, Henry of Saxony, and the three Othos. At this period the great feudatories of the Empire nominated the Emperor, and the people approved and confirmed the nomination. Thus it was that Lothaire II