his character, he set forth in pursuit of Darius with his fine cavalry. He soon learned that Bessus, the perfidious satrap of Bactria, kept his master in custody, but, before he could save Darius, Bessus had the unfortunate monarch assassinated, B. C. 330. He was found lying in his chariot covered with wounds. The perfidy of Bessus was subsequently punished with death. Darius was interred with great solemnity, and Alexander caused himself to be proclaimed king of Asia. While occupied in the formation of plans of vast importance, a conspiracy broke out in the camp of Alexander, in which Philotas, the son of Parmenion, was found to be concerned. Philotas, though brave and hardy, was addicted to pleasure, to expensive amusements, and given to boasting. He frequently spoke slightingly of Alexander to the companions of his pleasures-calling him the boy, and saying that his victories were rather the result of his own exertions and those of his father, than of the bravery and skill of Alexander. Parmenion endeavoured to check his son, saying, "Make yourself less conspicuous," but his counsel was of no avail. Alexander heard of the boastings of Philotas with indignation; and when the conspiracy broke forth his anger knew no bounds. Philotas was executed, and, by the orders of Alexander, the veteran Parmenion was secretly put to death-a criminal act which excited the displeasure of the whole

army.

Meanwhile Agis, king of Sparta, threatened the destruction of the power of Alexander in Greece, and raised a powerful army to obtain independence, but he was defeated by Antipater, and the dissolution of the Grecian league ensued. Neither the severity of the winter, nor the want of local knowledge prevented Alexander from marching into the north of Asia and reaching the Caspian Sea. He attacked the Scythians, urged on by an insatiable thirst for distinction. On his return to Bactria, he assumed the dress of the Persians, which disgusted the Macedonians, who thought the flowing robes of the Orientals too effeminate. The Persians were displeased at beholding the Macedonian officers entering the royal presence without those tokens of respect, which the kings of their nation invariably exacted from their subjects. The low inclinations of reverence could only be claimed from the Greeks on the plea that Alexander, as a god, was entitled to them. A blunt Spartan once satisfied the master of ceremonies and his own scruples, by first dropping a ring and then

stooping to pick it up in the presence of the king. Offended with the independence and freedom of Clitus, Alexander slew him with his own hand at a banquet. As soon as he saw the lifeless body of his most faithful friend and bravest general stretched before him, he was seized with all the agonies of remorse.

The next year Alexander subdued Sogdiana, and married the Bactrian Roxana, the loveliest of Asiatic women. The Asiatic women, but particularly the ladies of Persia, were famous for the richness of their attire, and the art with which they heightened their native beauty. "The Persian ladies," says an elegant writer, "wore the tiara or turban, richly adorned with jewels. They wore their hair long, and both plaited and curled it; nor, if the natural failed, did they scruple to use false locks. They pencilled the eye-brows, and tinged the eye-lid, with a dye that was supposed to add a peculiar brilliancy to the eyes. They were fond of perfumes, and their delightful ottar was the principal favorite. Their tunic and drawers were of fine linen, the robe or gown of silk-the train of this was long, and on state occasions required a supporter. Round the waist they wore a broad zone or cincture, flounced on both edges, and embroidered and jewelled in the centre. They also wore stockings and gloves, but history does not record their materials. They used no sandals; a light and ornamental shoe was worn in the house; and for walking they had a kind of coarse half boot. They used shawls and wrappers for the person, and veils for the head; the veil was large and square, and when thrown over the head, descended low on all sides. They were fond of glowing colors, especially of purple, scarlet, and light-blue dresses. Their favorite ornaments were pearls; they wreathed these in their hair, wore them as necklaces, ear-drops, armlets, bracelets, anklets, and worked them into conspicuous parts of their dresses. Of the precious stones they preferred emeralds, rubies, and turquoises, which were set in gold and worn like the pearls." No fewer than 10,000 Greeks, captivated with their charms, married Asiatic brides, and each couple received a present from Alexander.

Soon after the marriage of Alexander with Roxana, a conspiracy was discovered among his troops, headed by Hermolaus. All were condemned to death but Callisthenes, who was mutilated and carried about with the army in an iron cage, until his tortures became insufferable, and he killed himself by poison. Alexander penetrated into India and was highly success

ful. His most determined enemy was Porus, an Indian king, whom he effectually subdued. When this warlike monarch was asked how he should be treated, he answered Alexander, "Like a king," and was consequently restored to his kingdom.

Alexander established Greek colonies in India, and is said to have built no fewer than seventy towns, one of which was erected in honor of his horse Bucephalus, killed on the banks of the Hydaspes. He would have penetrated as far as the Ganges but for the murmurs of his army. He returned to the Hydaspes, and built a fleet upon its banks, despatching part of his army by water, while the remainder marched down its banks. His march through the country was not unopposed, and he himself received a severe wound, from which, however, he recovered, and sailing down the Indus, reached the sea. Nearchus, the admiral of Alexander, sailed to the Persian gulf, while the conqueror reached Babylon by land after encountering incredible fatigues, which cost him the loss of many men. At Susa, he was married to two Persian princesses. At Opis, on the Tigris, he sent home the invalids with presents, and quelled a mutiny of his troops. Not long after this, his friend and favorite, Hephaestion, died. It is asserted that the fever of Hephaestion was brought on by hard drinking. Alexander's grief at the loss of his favorite was excessive, and even endangered his reason; for three days he tasted no food, and lay, stretched upon the ground, either in silent sorrow or loud lamentation. The money expended on the funeral pile might have erected a palace; and all the barbarian subjects of Alexander, were ordered to go into mourning. When Alexander went from Ecbatana to Babylon, he is said to have been warned by the astrologers, that the latter place would prove fatal to him. Despising these warnings, he went to Babylon and gave audience to the several foreign ambassadors, who awaited his arrival. His mind was engaged in forming vast plans for the future, when he was seized with sickness, after a banquet, and died, 323 B. C. Alexander had reigned twelve years and eight months, and was thirty-two years old at the time of his death. The vast possessions which he had acquired by force, were deluged by continual bloodshed when he was no more. When asked to whom he left his kingdom-he answered, "to the worthiest." The body of Alexander was interred with all the pomp and circumstance of regal burial at Alexandria,

where Ptolemy enclosed his remains in a golden coffin. The Egyptians and other nations paid divine honors to him after his death. After summing up the good qualities of Alexander, Adrian adds, "If then he erred from quickness of temper and the influence of anger, and if he loved the display of barbarian pride and splendor, I regard not these as serious offences; for, in candor, we ought to take into consideration his youth, his perpetual success, and the influence of those men who court the society of kings, not for virtuous purposes, but to minister to their pleasures and to corrupt their principles. On the other hand, Alexander is the only ancient king, who, from the native goodness of his heart, showed a deep repentance for his misdeeds.'

ALEXANDER JANNÆUS, ascended the throne of Judea in 106, B. C. He made war on the Arabians, quelled the tumults of his own subjects, and after conquering Syria, Idumæa, and Phoenicia, delivered himself up to the most revolting excesses, and died at Jerusalem, B. C. 79.

ALEXANDER SEVERUS, a Phoenician by birth, was related to the emperor Heliogabalus, who, however, attempted his life, in consequence of which the Prætorian guards slew the monster, and made Alexander emperor in his 17th year. He proved himself worthy of the sceptre, and having gained a great victory over the Persians, on his return to Rome, was honoured by a triumph. When he marched into Gaul, where an irruption of the Germans required his presence, he fell, by a mutiny of his troops, in the year 235, after a reign of twelve years. He was pious, temperate, frugal, humane, and so favorably disposed to Christianity, that he placed the statue of Jesus in his private chapel.

ALEXANDER, the name of seven Popes, the first of whom introduced the use of holy water. The sixth was remarkable for his cruelty and the infamy of his son, Cæsar Borgia. He died in 1503, having greatly extended the Papal dominions in Italy.

ALEXANDER NEWSKOI, grand duke of Russia, a hero and saint of the Russian Church, was born in 1218. Having become viceroy of Novogorod, he successfully opposed Vlademir II. king of Denmark, and the Teutonic knights. In 1240, he gained his splendid victory over the Swedes, on the Neva, and two years afterwards, overcame the Knights of the Sword, on the frozen surface of lake Peipus. His death took place in 1263.

ALEXANDER I, PAULOWITSCH (the son of Paul), Emperor and Autocrat of all the Russias, and king of Poland, was born in 1777, and crowned the 27th of September, 1801. His mother, Maria, was the daughter of duke Eugene of Wirtemberg, and, throughout his life, exerted a great influence over Alexander, by whom she was tenderly beloved. The education of Alexander was committed to the empress Catharine II. and Colonel Laharpe, his father renouncing all care of it. In 1793, he married Elizabeth, daughter of the hereditary prince of Baden. He took part in the conspiracy against his father Paul, although it is impossible to believe that he entertained any design against his life, but saw safety to himself and others only in the removal of the emperor, from a throne which he disgraced by the reckless spirit of persecution. Alexander sought to promote the welfare of Russia-he removed the shackles from her commerce and internal industry; he regulated the interior administration of his kingdom; he established schools and universities; he bettered the condition of the peasantry; he raised the military character of his subjects; he modified laws with a liberal spirit; he provided for the construction of roads and canals; he encouraged merit wherever he found it, and finally sought to inspire all classes with a spirit of union, patriotism, enterprise, and courage. The extent of his success various events contributed to prove. When Napoleon threatened the government with subversion, and the Russians looked to their monarch as their guide, they saw no timidity-no irresolution in Alexander. "I will not negociate with Napoleon," was his resolve," while one armed enemy remains within my kingdom." Yet he was an admirer of the brilliant qualities of Napoleon, and this sincere admiration of the French emperor, led to their celebrated meeting at Erfurt, in September, 1808. Alexander then thought that, in connexion with Napoleon, he might fix the destinies of Europe. But Napoleon could brook no equal, and Alexander no superior. When the former displayed a desire to legislate for a country of which he knew little, and that too in defiance of the wishes and welfare of its emperor, the friendship between them was at an end. In 1814, the conduct of Alexander to the Parisians, when the allies entered their capital-the deference he paid to their wishes and opinions-and his favourable tendency towards liberal principles-gained him their enthusiastic admiration. In all the important transactions of Europe from this pe

riod, to the time of his death, Alexander partook, and exerted an immense influence in the different European courts. He was the principal contriver of the "Holy Alliance," but probably from principle as much as from interest. He was the main stay of this unhallowed confederacy, and Europe rejoiced accordingly at his death, which took place at Taganrock, of a bilious fever, 1st of December, 1825. In his last illness, the emperor refused medicine, calling continually for “iced water," the only thing which he would drink. His illness lasted eleven days. Three days after his death, the body was exposed to permit the people to kiss the hands of their dead monarch. It was then placed in a coffin, and borne in procession to the church where it remained forty days, and was thence carried to St. Petersburg. A favourite servant of the emperor drove the funeral car which carried his remains to the capital. The emperor's aids-de-camp, followed the cortege, three of them being seated in the funeral car. A squadron of Cossacks of the guard, attendants, and officers, attached to the imperial suite, completed the train. It took its departure from Taganrock, in the most severe weather of December, 1825. The empress, who was tenderly attached to her husband, soothed his last moments, and received his last sigh.

ALEXANDER, William, Lord Stirling, was a Major-general in the army of the United States during the revolution, and distinguished himself throughout the whole of the eventful struggle, but particularly in the battles of Long Island, Germantown, and Monmouth. He died at Albany, 1783, with the reputation of a learned, brave, honest, and patriotic man. The title of Lord Stirling, was given him by courtesy, as he claimed to be the rightful heir to an earldom in Scotland, although his claims were not sustained by legal tribunals.

ALEXANDRIA (called Scanderia by the Turks), was the capital of Lower Egypt, and under the Ptolemies, whose favourite residence it was, was celebrated for its wealth, splendor, and arts. It was founded in 332, B. C. by Alexander, who employed the celebrated architect, Dinociates, in beautifying and embellishing it. There was something singularly striking in the birth of this great city. Under the patronage of Alexander, it sprang up at once into beauty and importance, without encountering any of those evils and obstacles, which generally obstruct the rise of a newly-founded place. The situation of Alexandria, and the

excellence of its fine harbours, appeared to adapt it to the rank which its founder hoped that it would hold among the cities of the world. Ptolemy Soter, or the Savior, and Ptolemy Philadelphus, conferred great benefits upon the city, which became the seat of literature and the resort of the learned of all countries. Its earliest inhabitants were Greeks and Egyptians. The population was augmented by colonies of Jews transported thither for that purpose. These people made themselves familiar with Grecian lore, and translated into the Greek language the whole of the Old Testament, a version called the Septuagint. Four hundred thousand volumes of the royal library were contained in a magnificent edifice belong ing to the Academy and Museum; 300,000 more were deposited in the temple of Jupiter Serapis. As all these works were in manuscript, their value was consequently immense. The Ptolemies spared no pains to enrich their library, which became the finest in the world. When Julius Cæsar besieged Alexandria, the library was injured by fire, but the loss was repaired by the library of Pergamus which Antony presented to Queen Cleopatra. It is now ascertained that the library of the Serapion, or temple of Serapis, remained entire until the time of Theodosius the Great, when the Christians, inspired by fanaticism, stormed and destroyed the Temple, effecting the destruction of that library which was the wonder of the world, and the loss of which must ever be a subject of painful regret. Towards the close of the fourth century, the only memorials of the existence of the library, were the empty shelves which once contained those invaluable manuscripts, which the elegance and care of kings had brought together. When the division of the Roman empire was effected, Alexandria, together with the country of which it was the capital, was included in the Eastern empire. Alexandria came into the hands of the Arabs, in 640. It received the attention of the Caliph Motawakel, who, mindful of its former state, restored both the library and academny, in 845. In 868, it was taken by the Turks, and under their sway, very rapidly declined. Still its commerce was in a flourishing state, and continued so until the close of the 15th century, when the Portuguese, by the discovery of the passage to the Indies by the Cape of Good Hope, altered the commercial channel, and enriched themselves at the expense of the Egyptians. The modern city of Alexandria, does not stand upon the spot occupied by the

ancient city. The remains of ancient Alexandria are unimportant, Cleopatra's needle, and Pompey's pillar, being the most conspicuous. The latter was erected by Pompey, a governor of Egypt, in honor of the emperor Diocletian; but the equestrian statue which formerly sur mounted it, is gone. Some years past, a party of English sailors resolved to amuse themselves, and astonish the natives, by mounting to the top, and refreshing themselves at an elevation which should put them above the cares and turmoils of humanity. How to accomplish their purpose was the next question. This was soon settled. They raised a line by means of a kite, and dropped it over the pillar, and by this means drew up a rope, by which they gained the top, whence, looking down upon the spectators from a giddy elevation of 88 feet, they congratulated themselves on their success. The island of Pharos yet bears the ruins of the light-house erected by Ptolemy. This celebrated building was of white marble. Ptolemy directed his name to be inscribed upon the tower, but the cunning architect carved the name of his employer upon a tablet of plaster, which, decaying in time, displayed the name of the builder, with a dedication to the gods, claiming for himself all the honors due to his sovereign. The Turks have but little sympathy with the lovers of antiquity. They deface the most venerated remains, placing little value upon any, probably espousing the oriental max im; "a living dog is better than a dead lion." A few years ago, the Pacha of Egypt employed a renegado to collect all the moveable antiques of every kind, that they might be exposed for sale to the Europeans, in a bazaar built for the purpose. Cleopatra's needle was presented to the king of England by the Pacha, but its weight, 400,000 pounds, is a serious bar to its transportation. The ancient Alexandria, had a population of 600,000; the modern contains but 25,000. It is the seat of a patriarch. The canal from Cairo to Alexandria, has improved the commerce of the place." It has two harbors, of which the Western, or Old Harbor has the deepest water, and the best anchorage; the New Port is more shallow and exposed.

ALEXANDRIA, (U. S. A.) a city in the District of Columbia, county of Alexandria, situated on the right bank of the Potomac, six miles south of Washington. Population in 1800, 4,196; in 1830, 8,263, blacks, 2,581. It contains several public buildings. Its situation is rather elevated, and some of its streets

are well paved. Its trade, which is principally in flour, is facilitated, by its favorable situation on the Potomac.

ALEXIS, or ALEXIUS PETROVITSCH, son of Peter the Great of Russia, was born in 1690. His father, suspecting him of treason, disinherited him in 1718. Not content with this he had Alexis condemned to death, and his sentence read to him, which created such terror in his mind, that he died in consequence, although pardoned, in four days. The account of his assassination in prison is wholly a fabrication. He had a son who was afterwards Peter II.

ALEXIS I (Comnenus) Greek emperor, defeated by Robert Guiscard at Dyrrachium, and by the Turks in Asia Minor. In conjunction with the crusaders, he regained Nicæa, in 1097, but afterwards quarrelled with them. He flourished from 1081, to 1118.

ALEXIS II (Comnenus) in consequence of the misconduct of his mother, was compelled to admit Andronicus Comnenus as his colleague in 1183. This miscreant strangled him in the year after.

ALEXIS III (Angelus) having deposed his brother Isaac, emperor of the east, and put out his eyes, thought his usurped sovereignty secure. But he was besieged in Constantinople by the French and Venetians, who reinstated Isaac. In Thrace, whither he had fled for safety, Alexis fell into the hands of Theodore Lascaris, who put his eyes out, and imprisoned him in a monastery, where he died.

ALFIERI, Victor, Count, was born at Asti in Piedmont, in 1749. His family was rich and distinguished, but his education was neglected, like that of most of the young Italian nobles of his age and rank. Thus he quitted the academy of Turin, with an undisciplined and unformed mind, and joined a regiment in the hope of finding something exciting in military pursuits. But here he was disappointed, the regiment was mustered only on a few days in the year, and he was compelled to seek some other mode of killing time. He travelled over Italy, France, England, and Holland, but wanted the information to render his wanderings profitable. On his return, he commenced the study of history, but, disgusted with its details, again set forth on his travels, from which he did not return for three years. He brought back the same restless and dissatisfied spirit. He threw up his commission in the army, and wrote a tragedy. The success of this first attempt, induced him to persevere; but, aware

of his deficiencies, he resolved, in the first place, to become acquainted with Latin and Tuscan. On his journey to Tuscany, where he proposed studying, he became acquainted with the Countess of Albany, to whom he owed much of his inspiration. Settling his fortune on his sister, he resided alternately at Florence and Rome, until the death of Charles Stuart, put an end to the woes of the Countess of Albany, and enabled her to marry him. They lived together in Alsace and at Paris, until the revolution in France drove Alfieri from a country he loved, to his native land, where he resided at Florence till his death, in 1803. He was an ardent lover of freedom, but he mourned over the crimes perpetrated in her name. Alfieri's talents were great, but misapplied, and his tragedies are rather valuable as indicating his powers, than as establishing his fame.

ALFRED THE GREAT, king of England, was born 849, and died 900. He was the youngest son of Ethelwolf, king of the West Saxons, and was born at Wantage, in Berkshire. He went to Rome at the age of five years, and was anointed by the Pope, although he then had an elder brother. However, in 872, he ascended the throne. This was an unpropitious time, for the power of the Danes was then great and employed in harassing the Saxons, whose country they ravaged in various directions. Alfred concluded some treaties with them, but they were not kept, and, unable to make head against the invaders, he was compelled to fly, and in concealment to await a moment when his re-appearance would be advantageous for his country. In the disguise of a harper, he penetrated the Danish camp to gain information of the strength and hopes of his foes, and having satisfied himself of both, directed his nobles and their vassals to assemble at Selwood. Here he headed the troops, and, attacking the Danes at Eddington, gained a signal victory. He permitted those Danes, who were willing to embrace the Christian religion, to remain in the kingdom of East Anglia, which he surrendered to them. He built forts to secure his subjects, augmented and strengthened his navy, and established the prosperity of London on a firm basis. He defeated the Danes who still persisted in attempting to obtain footing in England, and made his name a terror to the pirates. He had fought fifty-six battles by sea and land, in every one of which he was personally enga ged. His zeal for the reformation of laws and manners is as honorable to him as his military prowess. He composed a code of laws, institu