Mrs Henry Ady (born Julia Cartwright) is especially known for her books on Burne-Jones, G. F. Watts, Bastien-Lepage, The Painters of Florence, and other artistic subjects, and for her Lives of Isabella d'Este and Beatrice d'Este.

Mrs Desmond Humphreys, as 'Rita,' published Dame Durden (1883), Peg the Rake, The Lie Circumspect, An Old Rogue's Tragedy, The Sin of Jasper Standish, and other novels.

Mrs Margaret Wolfe Hungerford (c. 1855–97), an Irish novelist writing sometimes anonymously and sometimes as 'The Duchess,' published nearly thirty volumes of short stories and novels, Phillis in 1877, and Molly Bawn, the most successful, in 1878. Violet Paget (b. 1856) is in literature 'Vernon Lee,' and author of The Eighteenth Century in Italy, Euphorion (essays on the Renaissance), Baldwin (dialogues), A Phantom Lover, Genius Loci, Hortus Vita.

Mrs Annie Besant (born Wood, 1857), for a while antiChristian and secularist writer and lecturer, became from 1889 onward a conspicuous representative of a pseudo-Brahminical theosophy, among her books being Reincarnation, The Ancient Wisdom, Esoteric Christianity, The Religious Problem in India. Constance Caroline Woodhill Naden (1858-89) wrote

brilliant essays on philosophical subjects, and published two volumes of poetry of singular interest. Hesba Stretton is the pen-name of Sarah Smith, author of Jessica's First Prayer and similar stories. Sarah Grand (born Frances Elizabeth Clarke) is known

as author of The Heavenly Twins and other problem novels, The Beth Book and Babs the Impossible being later stories.

Mrs Burnett Smith has, under her maiden name of Annie S. Swan, written Aldersyde, Carlowrie, St Veda's, Sir Roderick's Will, Not Yet, and many other stories, especially popular with girls.

Edna Lyall is the pen-name of Ada Ellen Bayly (died 1903), author of Donovan, We Two, The Autobiography of a Slander, To Right the Wrong. Mrs Mona Caird (born Alison) is author of The Wing of Azrael (1889), The Daughters of Danaus, and other novels, and of essays on marriage and on vivisection.

Mrs Arthur Stannard (born Vaughan) wrote, as 'John Strange Winter,' Bootles' Baby (1885), The Truth Tellers, A Name to Conjure with, A Blaze of Glory. Maxwell Gray, the pen-name of Miss M. G. Tuttiett, became known through The Silence of Dean Maitland (1886), An Innocent Impostor, A Costly Freak, Four-leaved Clover, and other novels and poems. Kathleen Mannington Caffyn (born Hunt) attracted notice by A Yellow Aster, Children of Circumstances, Anne Mauleverer, The Minx, The Happiness of Jill, and other novels.

Mrs W. K. Clifford, widow of Professor Clifford, has written Anyhow Stories for children; many novels not for children-Mrs Keith's Crime, Love Letters of a Worldly Woman, A Wild Proxy; and A Long Duel and other plays.

Lady Mary Montgomerie Currie has, under the penname of Violet Fane, attained some distinction as author of From Dawn to Noon (1872), Denzil Place, The Queen of the Fairies, Sophy, Thro' Love and War, Two Moods of a Man, as well as the memoirs of the Queen of Navarre, and several collections of

verse.

The Hon. Emily Lawless, daughter of Lord Cloncurry, made a name for herself by her Irish story Hurrish, followed by Grania and Maelcho; wrote a history of Ireland and a book on Essex in Ireland; as also With the Wild Geese (1892), a volume of poems. Mrs Katharine Tynan Hinkson (born Tynan, 1861) published a volume of poems in 1885, and since 1887 has written upwards of a score of books in prose and verse, mainly novels, among them The Dear Irish Girl, She Walks in Beauty, That Secret Enemy. Amy Levy (1861-89), Jewish poetess, wrote, besides Xantippe and two other collections of poems, a clever novel, Reuben Sachs.

Beatrice Harraden (b. 1864) is author of Ships that Pass in the Night (1893), In Varying Moods, Hilda Strafford, Katharine Frensham.

Marie Corelli, born in 1864, and trained in a French convent for a musical career, produced a popular novel, A Romance of Two Worlds, in 1886; Thelma, Wormwood, and The Sorrows of Lilith were the work of the next half-dozen years; and more ambitious and more popular were Barabbas, The Sorrows of Satan, and The Mighty Atom. The Murder of Delicia, Ziska, The Problem of a Wicked Soul, Jane, and Boy attracted less notice than The Master Christian (1900) and Temporal Power (1902). Elizabeth Robins, distinguished on the stage for her interpretations of Ibsen, has as 'C. E. Raimond' written The Open Question and other notable novels. Ellen Thorneycroft Fowler (by marriage Mrs Felkin) published poems and the novels Concerning Isabel Carnaby (1898), A Double Thread, The Farringdons, Love's Argument, Place and Power.

Mary Cholmondeley, author of The Danvers Jewels, Sir Charles Danvers, Diana Tempest, and A Devotee, became famous in 1899 through her Red Pottage. Jane Barlow, beginning with Bogland Studies and Irish Idylls in 1892, has become an authoritative exponent of the kindlier side of Irish life in fact and romance. Violet Martin, writing as 'Martin Ross,' in conjunction with Edith Œ. Somerville has produced a series of stories, tragic and humorous-An Irish Cousin, Through Connemara, The Real Charlotte, The Silver Fox, Some Experiences of an Irish R.M.

T

HE Dominion of Canada, even without its Arctic islands, occupies more of the surface of the North American continent than the United States, and is in area little less than the whole of Europe. But at the beginning of the twentieth century the energetic population who had already given it its rank amongst the most promising countries and communities of the world numbered less than five and a half millions-a little more numerous than the people of the Netherlands at the same date, larger by a million than the population of Scotland, but less by a million than the population of Greater London. Only since the early years of the seventeenth century has any part of what we now call Canada been the home of men of European blood and speech. The earliest settlers were Frenchmen, whose sparsely peopled settlements on the shores of the St Lawrence and in Acadia were till near the end of the century but little disturbed by the English colonists to the south. From New England the tide of colonisation gradually flowed towards north and west. Collisions between French and English interests, between French and English colonists, became frequent and almost inevitable; and in the middle of the eighteenth century Canada was the stake for which France and England contended in wars fought out partly in Europe and partly in America. The capture of Quebec by Wolfe in 1759 practically ended the struggle; and by the Treaty of Paris in 1763, what was then called Canada, with the parts of New France between the Alleghanies and the Mississippi, was ceded to Great Britain. During the revolution which led to the constitution of the United States as a new nation, Canada remained loyal to the mother-country. And the immigration into Canada at the close of the war of some thirty or forty thousand United Empire Loyalists, sadly shaking off the dust of their feet against the new republican polity, greatly strengthened the still numerically weak English element in the loyal province, and permanently saved British interests in the vast area where till of late settlers of English speech

had been greatly outnumbered by those of French blood.

French literature in Canada, beginning with the books of the old explorers and missionaries, and including in modern days the poems of Fréchette, Crémazie, Le May, and Sulte, lies wholly without the scope of this work. And the earliest books in English written in Canada or about Canada-such as the accounts of their explorations by the Londoner Samuel Hearne and the Scotsman Alexander Mackenzie, all dating from the end of the eighteenth and beginning of the nineteenth century-need only passing mention. Nor have the Earl of Selkirk's writings, William Smith's History of Canada (1815), or David Thompson's The War of 1812 much to do with the development of Canadian literature; as in the other colonies, a majority of the earlier writers were British born. From 1828 onwards Joseph Howe made his newspaper, the Nova Scotian, published in Halifax, an important literary as well as political organ, and secured for it Haliburton's humorous papers. In virtue of his three years' sojourn in Canada, and of his Lawrie Todd, Bogle Corbet, and other works dealing with Canadian life, John Galt (see pages 296-300) is at least associated with Canadian literature; and whoever it was who wrote it, the 'Canadian Boat Song,' referred to on page 298, is (in contrast to Moore's) a very noteworthy and early poetic outcome of a Scottish exile's life in the Canadian backwoods. Many of R. M. Ballantyne's stories (see page 623) reflect his experiences in the Hudson Bay territories, and have made two generations of British boys familiar with some aspects of life in those regions.

The first considerable verse writer in Canada was Mrs Susannah Moodie, youngest sister of Miss Agnes Strickland. With her husband, a Scottish officer who had seen service in the Low Countries and South Africa, she settled in Ontario in 1832, and before her death in 1885 produced a good deal of verse (including notable poems on the maple and the canoe) and much minor fiction. Charles Heavysege (1816-76), a Liverpool cabinetmaker, published after he settled in Canada, in 1853, sonnets, longer poems, novels, and several tragedies, of which the most important

was Saul. Isabella Valancey Crawford (1851-87), born in Dublin, came to Canada as a child, and is gratefully remembered for her lyrics, such as 'The Master Builder' and 'The Axe of the Pioneer.' George Frederick Cameron (1854-85), a Nova Scotian born, deserves to be regarded as the first native poet whose lyrics, intense and passionate, were greeted as admirable by the foremost English critics and poets. Educated at Queen's University, Kingston, Cameron became editor of a Kingston newspaper, and is perhaps best known for his defiant What reck we of the creeds of men?' At the end of the nineteenth century an enthusiastic Canadian anthologist was able to commemorate the work of no less than a hundred and thirty-five Canadian poets, of whom C. G. D. Roberts, Bliss Carman, W. W. Campbell, and Sir Gilbert Parker may be reckoned amongst the foremost.

In novels, tales, and stories Galt's first successor was Major John Richardson, author of Wacousta (1833), who was born in Ontario of Scottish parents. William Kirby, G. M. Adam, Miss Lily Dougall, and Miss M. M. Saunders are but a few amongst recent or living authors of romance and story. Grant Allen, though Canadian born, came to Oxford as a youth, and was reckoned amongst English authors. Sir Gilbert Parker, though serving as English M.P. from 1900, is still accounted a Canadian poet and Canadian novelist, and is the most conspicuous Canadian man of letters.

Amongst historical writers, besides Bourinot and C. G. D. Roberts, Kingsford and Goldwin Smith, should be named Robert Christie, James Hannay, George Bryce, J. C. Dent, and G. M. Adam. Mr Arthur Doughty's six volumes on Wolfe's campaign (1903) constitute a very important contribution to Canadian history. Alpheus Todd produced in his Parliamentary Government in England (1867-68) what even in England ranks as an authoritative work. Sir Daniel Wilson had attained eminence in Scotland as an antiquarian and historian ere in 1853, in mid-time of his life, he came to Toronto as Professor of History and English Literature. Sir William Logan, geologist, was the first native man of science who can be reckoned amongst really eminent representatives of his profession: the Dawsons, father and sonSir J. W. Dawson and Dr G. M. Dawson-worthily maintained the tradition. Sir John Murray of the Challenger, a supreme authority on oceanography, was born in Coburg, Ontario, and partly educated in Canada, but has done most of his scientific lifework in Britain. Dr Theal (see page 730) is a New Brunswicker. Dr J. B. Crozier, though settled in London, may be claimed by Canadians as one of their most original and stimulating thinkers and writers. Professor John Watson of Kingston went from Scotland to Canada in 1872, and has since then published a series of works on Kant, Schelling, Comte, Mill, and Spencer, on ethical

philosophy and Christian idealism, which rank him amongst our most fruitful writers on philosophy.

On the beginnings of literature in Canada, see the Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada (1883 et seq.), especially a paper by J. G. Bourinot in 1893, published also as a separate book, Canada's Intellectual Strength and Weakness; the same author's Intellec tual Development of the Canadian People; the relevant portions of the histories of Canada, particularly that by Roberts; Lighthall's collection of Songs of the Great Dominion (1889), and his anthology of Canadian Poems and Lays (Canterbury Poets,' 1891); Sladen and Roberts, Younger American Poets (1891); Stedman's Victorian Anthology (1895); Wetherell's Later Canadian Poems (1893); Rand's Treasury of Canadian Verse (1900).

Thomas Chandler Haliburton (1796–1865) was born at Windsor in Nova Scotia, and educated in his native town. Called to the Bar in 1820, he became a member of the House of Assembly, Chief-Justice of the Common Pleas (1828), and Judge of the Supreme Court (1842). In 1856 he retired and settled in England, was made D.C.L. by Oxford, and in 1859-63 was Conservative M.P. for Launceston. He takes rank in British American literature mainly as creator of 'Sam Slick,' Yankee pedlar and clockmaker, whose quaint drollery, unsophisticated wit, simple but trenchant satire, knowledge of human nature, and aptitude in the use of soft sawder' have given him a fair chance of immortality. The newspaper sketches (written anonymously) in which this character first appeared were collected in 1837-40 as The Clockmaker, or Sayings and Doings of Samuel Slick of Slickville, and were continued as The Attaché, or Sam Slick in England (1843-44), the typical Yankee having been brought to England in this new capacity. Haliburton's other works include A Historical and Statistical Account of Nova Scotia (1825-29); Bubbles of Canada (1839); The Old Judge, or Life in a Colony; The Letter-bag of the Great Western; Wise Saws and Modern Instances; Nature and Human Nature; Traits of American Humour; and Rule and Misrule of the English in America (1850). The Canadian humourist has had few successors in his own country; but he is recognised as the father of all such as have anywhere in America written humorous work in dialect. There is a Memoir by F. B. Crofton (1889).

Joseph Howe (1804-73) was the son of an emigrant-loyalist who came from Boston to Halifax after the American Revolution. Bred, like his father, a printer, he soon showed exceptional journalistic gifts, and in 1828 became proprietor and editor of the Nova Scotian, remarkable not merely as the paper in which Haliburton's 'Sam Slick' made his bow to the world, but for its editor's own brilliant contributions. These comprised sketches of his own experiences, 'Western and Eastern Rambles ;' a series of papers, The Club,' on the model of Noctes Ambrosiana; and his weightier 'Legislative Reviews.' He became the most conspicuous man in provincial public life, the most eloquent speaker in the Assembly, Secretary of State, and

Governor of Nova Scotia. His Speeches and Public Letters were published (1858), and there is a Life of him by Fenety (1896).

William Kingsford (1819-98), author of the standard History of Canada, was born in London; at sixteen he enlisted in the Dragoon Guards, and in 1837 went with his regiment to Canada. He had risen to be sergeant when, in 1841, he left the army to do surveying work; and as surveyor or engineer he was till 1879 engaged on canals, railways, and harbours in the United States, Panamá, and Canada. His first publications were on roads, canals, and his own travels. His History of Canada (10 vols. 1887-97), the result of seventeen years' patient labour in Canadian archives, is more remarkable for its fairness, fullness, and fidelity to its sources than for its literary style.

Goldwin Smith, born at Reading in 1823, passed from Eton to Oxford, took a first in classics in 1845, and in 1847 was elected a Fellow of University College and called to the Bar. A zealous promoter of university reform, he was assistantsecretary to the first and secretary to the second Oxford University Commission, and served on an Education Commission in 1858. Regius Professor of History at Oxford in 1858–66, he was during the American Civil War a strenuous upholder of the North; in 1864 he lectured in the United States, and in 1868 he was elected to the chair of English and Constitutional History in Cornell University. Four years later he settled in Canada, edited the Canadian Monthly 1872-74, and founded and edited The Week and The Bystander; and forty years' residence and literary work entitle him to rank as a conspicuous Canadian publicist and author. He has written on the study of history, on Irish history, on Three English Statesmen (Pym, Hampden, Cromwell), a political history of the United States, and a political history of the United Kingdom, vigorous in style, luminous in exposition, and rich in suggestion. He is the author of books or pamphlets on university reform, the American Civil War, and questions of the day here and in America. Believing profoundly in the mission of the English race, he is antiimperialist both in British and in American politics, supported the disestablishment of the Irish Church, but opposed Home Rule. He has always insisted (in The Political Destiny of Canada and in Canada and the Canadian Question) that, geographically and commercially, Canada is bound ultimately to gravitate towards incorporation in the United States. He is an anti-Socialist but a Radical in most respects, an idealist but somewhat of a pessimist, an independent thinker and a very trenchant critic. There are monographs from his pen on Cowper, on Jane Austen, and on Lloyd Garrison. He has produced in A Trip to England and Oxford and her Colleges glorified guide-books for American tourists. Bay Leaves and Specimens of Greek Tragedy show his skill in verse. And in

Rational Religion (1861), Guesses at the Riddle of Existence (1897), and a short book on The Founder of Christendom (1903), he broke with historical Christianity, insists on free inquiry, and demands a reconstruction of our faith.

Sir John George Bourinot, born in Sydney, Nova Scotia, in 1837, studied at Trinity College, Toronto, and for years edited the Halifax Reporter, but in 1880 became Clerk of the Dominion House of Commons. He was one of the original members of the Royal Society of Canada, of which he has been president and honorary secretary. He has written largely on constitutional history, on parliamentary procedure and parliamentary government in Canada; a book on Cape Breton and one on Canada under British rule: besides the two works noted above on The Intellectual Development of the Canadian People (1880) and on Canada's Intellectual Strength and Weakness (1893; originally, like many of his works, printed in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada). He was made K.C.M.G. in 1898, and has received academic honours from Laval University.

Charles Grant Allen (1848-99), born at Kingston in Canada, graduated from Merton College, Oxford, in 1871. After four years at Queen's College, Jamaica, as Professor of Logic and Principal (1873-77), he returned to England, and, adopting a literary career, published Physiological Esthetics (1877), Colour Sense, Evolutionist at Large, Darwin, Colin Clout's Calendar, Flowers and their Pedigrees, The Story of the Plants, mainly connected with the exposition and popularisation of the evolution theory. Failing to make a livelihood by scientific work, he turned to novel-writing, and showed a marvellous fertility and attained remarkable popularity under the circumstances. Babylon, In All Shades, Philistia, The Devil's Die, were written frankly to please the public; in The Woman who Did (1895), first of his Hill-top Novels,' he sought to expound and promote his views on life and society-in this case unconventional and startling views on marriage and the relation of the sexes. The Evolution of the Idea of God (1897) was an antiChristian philosophy of religion. He wrote also a small book on Anglo-Saxon Britain, and a series of admirable historical guide-books to Paris, Florence, and Belgium.

John Beattie Crozier, born of Scotch parents at Galt, Ontario, in 1849, was educated at the Grammar School in Galt and at Toronto University; and having qualified as M.D. (1872), came to England and settled in practice in London. But he found time to produce as early as 1880 an important work on The Religion of the Future, first of a series of original and suggestive contributions to the history of civilisation and culture; Civilisation and Progress (1885) being followed in

1897 by the first volume of The History of Intellectual Development on the Lines of Modern Evolution. My Inner Life (1898) he described as 'a chapter on personal evolution and autobiography ;' and he wrote a study of Lord Randolph Churchill and English democracy.

W. H. Drummond, born in 1859 in the west of Ireland, came to Quebec province in 1869, and settled as doctor in a typical mixed village, Bord a Plouffe, peopled by French and English-speaking voyageurs, Indians, half-breeds, and FrenchScotch-Irish Canadians, who ran the rapids and served with Wolseley on the Red River expedition. He handles in a masterly manner the mixed patois of English and French spoken around him, and in his verse the grotesqueness of the combination strikes one less than the poetry and tenderness and fire of the narrative. The Habitant and other French-Canadian Poems made him favourably known in 1898; Phil-o'-Rum's Canoe and Madeleine Vercheres were his next ventures (1899); Johnnie Courteau and other Poems followed in 1901.

Charles George Douglas Roberts, born at Douglas, New Brunswick, in 1860, studied at the University of New Brunswick, and after holding one or two minor educational posts, edited the Week at Toronto, was Professor of English Literature and of Economics in King's College, Windsor, Nova Scotia, from 1885 till 1895, and for two years edited a paper in New York. His best-known work in poetry is contained in Orion and other Poems (1880), In Divers Tones (1887), Poems of Wild Life (1888), an ode for the Shelley centenary, Songs of the Common Day, and The Book of the Native. But he has written largely in prose on a variety of subjects, from guide-books and histories of Canada to Earth's Enigmas, The Raid from Beauséjour, The Forge in the Forest, Around the Camp-fire, By the Marshes of Minas, The Heart of the Ancient Wood, and Barbara Ladd (1903), a story of Connecticut child-life.

Archibald Lampman (1861-99), descended from a family of German loyalist-emigrants from Pennsylvania, was born at Morpeth in Ontario, studied at Trinity College, Toronto, and made a name for himself as a poet while holding an appointment in the Ottawa Post-Office. Among the Millet (1888) and Lyrics of Earth (1895) were his chief collections of verse; and a memoir of him was prefixed to a collected edition of his Poems by D. C. Scott (1900).

William Bliss Carman, born at Fredericton in New Brunswick in 1861, studied at the university of his native province, at Edinburgh, and at Harvard, and was successively engineer and teacher, but since 1890 has edited or contributed to papers in New York, Chicago, and Boston. When Low Tide on Grand Pré appeared in 1893 he was universally acclaimed as a poet of power

and originality. A Sea-mark, Behind the Arras, and Ballads of Lost Haven followed. With a friend, Richard Hovey, he has produced three series of Songs from Vagabondia. St Kavin, a Ballad; At Michaelmas; The Girl in the Poster; The Green Book of the Bards; and The Vengeance. of Noel Brassard appeared between 1894 and 1899.

William Wilfred Campbell, born at Berlin in western Ontario in 1861, was the son of an Anglican clergyman, and educated in Toronto and in Massachusetts, became rector of a church in St Stephen, New Brunswick. In 1891 he withdrew from clerical work and took a post in the Civil Service at Ottawa. Lake Lyrics and other Poems, fresh descriptive verses, won him a hearing as a poet in 1889; Beyond the Hills of Dreams (1899) contains vigorous patriotic lyrics, such as 'Victoria,' 'England,' and 'The World Mother.'

Lily Dougall, born in Montreal in 1858, was educated at home and at Edinburgh University, and is L.L.A. of St Andrews. Her novels Beggars All (1891) and What Necessity Knows dealt effectively with soul problems, and have been followed by The Zeitgeist, A Question of Faith, The Madonna of a Day, A Dozen Ways of Love, The Mormon Prophet (1898).

Mrs Everard Cotes, born at Brantford, Ontario, in 1861, contributed largely to papers and magazines, and as Miss Sara Jeannette Duncan became famous for A Social Departure (1890), based on a tour round the world, and An American Girl in London (1891). In 1891 Miss Duncan married Mr Cotes, an Indian journalist, and has written a series of tales of Anglo-Indian life-His Honour and a Lady (1896), The Simple Adventures of a Mem Sahib, The Pool in the Desert (1903; four short stories), and others.

Charles William Gordon, born near Glengarry, Ontario, was for some time a teacher, but qualified at Toronto and in Edinburgh for the Presbyterian ministry, and in 1894 became minister of a church in Winnipeg. Under the penname of Ralph Connor, he is author of Beyond the Marshes, Black Rock, Given's Canyon, The Sky Pilot (1898; a tale of an evangelist on the Rockies), and Ould Michael.

Sir Gilbert Parker, born in Canada in 1862, and educated at Trinity College, Toronto, travelled much in Canada and in the Southern Seas, and for a time was on the staff of a Sydney paper. He published two or three plays, a book on Australia (1892), and a volume of poems (1894). But it was with Pierre and his People (1892), a fine presentation of Canadian character, that he first tapped the mine that has proved so rich. Other stories of Canadian life in the past or in the present, amongst habitants, half-breeds, and the rest, are The Translation of a Savage, The Trail of the