which give vivid spontaneous activity to the cerebral organs, mistake the solicitations of their propensities for temptations of the Devil, and emotions naturally arising from the action. of the moral and religious faculties for the influence of the Holy Spirit. The cases described on pages 40, 41, 42, are merely morbid states which occur in minor degrees in many persons not insane.

Individuals possessing this equally-balanced combination of organs, when their temperament is active, and their intellectual faculties are uninstructed, constitute what, in despotic countries, are called the dangerous classes. They are conscious of mental power, and feel trammelled and degraded; but having no faith in moral force, and no knowledge of the laws of the moral government of the world, they conspire, arm, and rebel. Occasionally, when the oppressor and his instruments are weak, they succeed in overthrowing an actual government, as has happened again and again in France; but after having acquired political influence, they, through defect of moral power in themselves, and through intellectual ignorance of the natural conditions of social well-being, are incapable of wielding it beneficially. They proclaim liberty, and immediately proceed to banish, imprison, or kill those who use that liberty in opposing them. If they rule over a people who also are unacquainted with the moral forces, and ignorant of their laws, and who in consequence have no faith in them, a despotic government is inevitable; because, in such a state of things, public safety is incompatible with allowing every man to follow the dictates of his own desires and understanding. In ignorant men thus organised, the propensities are the most active powers, and these all aim at selfish objects. If every man were to pursue his own selfish gratification, irrespective of the rights and interests of his neighbours, collision would be inevitable; and in the collision of animal forces the strongest would conquer. There must therefore be provided, from some quarter or another, a guiding and restraining power. In the first French Revolution, some of the leaders appear, from their portraits published in Lamartine's History of the Girondists, to have had equally-balanced brains, while others belonged to the lowest class, and all were uninstructed in the natural conditions of social well-being. Anarchy was the speedy result of their sway, and it was speedily followed by an iron despotism.

The ruler in whose brain the moral and intellectual organs are inferior in size to those of the propensities, be he in name a republican president, a constitutional monarch, or a despotic emperor, will, if left to his own guidance, resort to force and

fear as his means of government. He will address himself at once to the animal propensities of his subjects. He will gratify them to gain ends, and threaten them with pains and penalties in case of resistance to his will. Any people, therefore, which places in power over them, without restraint, brains of inferior combinations, or even brains of a medium order if ignorant of the nature of the moral forces through which the world is governed, will unquestionably reap tyranny as their reward. In rare emergencies, however, a high organisation, full of energy and confidence in itself, may exercise great moral control, for a limited time, even over an ignorant people.

In the French Revolution of 1848, Lamartine, by the fervour of his benevolent emotions and poetical eloquence, saved France and Europe from great calamities. He induced the republican government to remain at peace with foreign nations, and to abrogate the punishment of death for political offences. The large organs of Benevolence, Veneration, and Ideality, and the relatively moderate size of Combativeness and Destructiveness, combined with a considerable degree of intellect and the poetical temperament, gave Lamartine the consciousness of that moral power, and of its influence, on which he acted and the feelings of the French people responded to it. Apparently, the organs of Conscientiousness are less developed in his brain than those now mentioned; and through this defect, and also because he was ignorant of the natural laws by which the social forces are governed, he was incapable of proceeding in the course which alone could have led to permanent success. By sanctioning acts of benevolence disowned by intellect and conscientiousness, and therefore opposed to the social laws of nature, he lost his influence and his power. He is blamed by some politicians for having disowned, on the part of France, the intention of interfering with the governments of foreign nations; and it is said that it was this announcement that gave so many of the sovereigns of Europe courage to break their solemn oaths, to recal their concessions of freedom, to re-establish despotism, and to employ religion to rivet its chains round the necks of their subjects. The experience of the bad effects which followed from an opposite course of action in the first French Revolution is the best answer to this charge. In every case sovereigns and their subjects should be left to adjust their own differences, uninfluenced by foreign interference; and then that party which possesses the greatest amount of wealth, intelligence, morality, and energy, will prevail.

Without knowledge of the nature of man, and of the natural

laws to which he is subjected, even those who possess the best form and constitution of brain are incapable of instituting and maintaining a moral government-i. e., a government so free that the subjects of it shall, by the force of their own moral and intellectual faculties, aided by adequate instruction and training, be capable of restraining their own selfish propensities, and desire to pursue only such public objects as are compatible with the welfare of all. The incapacity shews itself in a distrust of moral power. They are conscious of a love of good, but they do not know how to pursue it, so as to rely with confidence on its being attained. Again, through the want of an index to discover the existence of the predominant qualities of other men, they find a difficulty in selecting efficient cooperators in good. In proposing reforms, therefore, they are afraid to go the whole length in trusting to the action of moral power; and in consequence, mar their best efforts by large infusions of precautionary elements addressed to the animal faculties, and calculated, as they believe, to steady political action and to secure order. In England they limit the franchise with a view to exclude the ignorant from political power, and at the same time they refuse to educate the people in order to remove this ignorance. In France, the leaders of the Revolution in 1848 enacted universal suffrage, which is the highest recognition of moral power, but without enquiring whether the people possessed knowledge and moral and religious training to fit them to exercise this power beneficially for themselves. The consequence was, that no sooner was an Assembly chosen under this suffrage, than certain portions of it commenced to act in diametrical opposition to the principle of the supremacy of moral right; and the remainder, with the nation at their back, had neither knowledge enough of the nature of that power, nor confidence enough in it, to enable them to wield it and rely on its efficacy as a safeguard to society: anarchy was avoided only by usurpation; and the usurpation was sanctioned by the majority of the people whose liberty it annihilated!

Such occurrences will continue to present themselves until the people shall be instructed in the fact, that the brain is an index of the animal, moral, and intellectual forces of men; and that it is through it chiefly that the moral government of the world is conducted. This knowledge will lead them to prepare themselves by self-improvement for freedom, and enable them to choose as their rulers men who are naturally capable of guiding them through virtue to social well-being. These rulers also must learn that the results of the action of these forces in private and social life are all

regulated by divinely appointed laws, which must be studied and obeyed before individual and social prosperity and happiness can be securely reached.

EFFECTS OF THE COMBINATION IN WHICH THE MORAL AND INTELLECTUAL ORGANS ARE LARGE IN PROPORTION TO THOSE OF THE PROPENSITIES.

The effect of this combination, cæteris paribus, is to produce moderate impulses in the animal propensities, strong moral and religious emotions, and good intellectual powers. When aided by an active temperament, it produces the ardent practical reformer. The moral and intellectual organs are then spontaneously active, and crave for gratification, which can be found only in doing good in the fields of private and social life.. Individuals thus constituted are keenly alive to the causes of evil, and desire to remove them. They are disposed to believe in a moral order of the world, and in the capability of mankind to advance in the career of virtue and happiness. They labour to remove obstacles, and to bring into action all influences that will hasten progress in well-being, virtue, and holiness. Men possessing the lowest, and also many having the middle form of brain, are disbelievers in the capacity of mankind for great improvement. They expect the future to present merely an endless recurrence of the past; and sneer at the more hopeful as enthusiasts and utopian schemers.

When a low temperament predominates, or a feeble constitution occurs in concomitance with the highest form of brain, conservative tendencies are produced. Such individuals having honestly and religiously imbibed the moral, religious, and political opinions taught to them in their youth, by authorities whom they reverenced, have little inclination, when they are old, to depart from them. The inactivity of their brains renders them incapable of forming new ideas. They love good, and fear to lose that which they possess. They, therefore, form the vis inertia of established social institutions; they cling to all that has been tried and found even tolerable, and to much that is felt to be intolerable by others, provided that it does not very painfully affect themselves. Their moral worth, sincerity and piety, give them great weight in social life and also in the councils of the nation, and it forms no small portion of the duty and labour of more active men to urge them forward. When once inured to improved institutions, they adhere to their forms and substance with equal pertinacity, and form buttresses of strength around them, until time shall have consolidated and hallowed the fabric.

As this class feels intuitively the paramount authority of the moral and religious faculties over the propensities, and desires to control and direct them to good, it becomes conscious of its need of information how to accomplish this end. In countries which profess to have received a special divine revelation, and do not recognise God's will in the constitution of nature, it betakes itself to the study of the books presented to it as sacred, and of the accredited commentaries on them, and yields itself to the guidance of the authorised expounders of these with a meek and holy reverence.

Men possessing this higher combination, however, if their brains be large and active, have the tendency to form interpretations of their sacred books which harmonise with their own mental constitution; and when bold, energetic, and enlightened, they demur to doctrines which violently contradict their emotions and intuitive convictions. Rammohun Roy, a Brahmin of Bengal, may be cited as an example. His brain was large, even tried by the European average size, and the moral and intellectual organs predominated over those of the animal propensities. The organs of Veneration, Hope, and Wonder, however, were smaller than those of Conscientiousness and Benevolence. He was skilled in the Bengalee, Persian, Arabic, Sanscrit, Greek, Hebrew, and English languages and literature. He died at Bristol on the 27th September 1833, and the following cuts represent a cast of his head.

An account of his life, character, and writings, is given in the Phrenological Journal, vol. viii. p. 577, from which the follow

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