For the Monthly Magazine. On M. PESTALOZZI'S NEW METHOD of INSTRUCTION, by c. L. STROM, of co

PENHAGEN.

greatest

portance, is admitted by all; as on it depends, in a great measure, their progress at a more advanced age, not only in arts and sciences, but in wisdom, the guidance of which they will stand in need of during their whole life. In proportion as the education of the child is conducted according to reason, will the man be able to improve upon it, and learn to conduct himself in, or to extricate himself from, such affairs and difficulties, as require presence of mind and a sound judgment. Such has always been the opinion of the sages who have turned their attention to this subject; and accordingly several of them have, from time to time, pointed out errors, and endeavoured to remove or rectify such errors as they observed. Their efforts have not been fruitless; but much still remains to be done, and it would seem that the completing of the reform was reserved for Pestalozzi.

The principal object Pestalozzi had in view was to conduct the elementary instruction in such a manner that the reform he proposed might have an influence upon the whole life of the pupil, with respect to his manner of thinking, reason ing, and acting. Finding that all our knowledge is derived from three ele ments, language, numbers, and form, he has divided elementary instruction into three branches.

The first, that which regards languages has for its object to initiate the child in the physical world, and to regulate the impressions thereof. Beginning with the observation and the naming of visible objects, as, for instance, the human body, plants, &c. he by degrees leads to the noticing of the different parts of these objects, the relative situation of their parts, their connection, their qualities, their uses, &c. thus gradually multiplying the sensations, the perceptions, and the general ideas of the children, till they have acquired the elements not only of physics, of natural history, of anthropology, and of several sciences of which it forms the basis, but likewise, at the same time, a grammar, the rules of which the children have themselves found by practice.

The second is a kind of arithmetic, but wholly intuitive, beginning with the numbering of visible objects; for instance, MONTHLY MAG. No. 158.

them by heart, or without the aid of ciphers, to all the calculations usually required in common life.

The third is a species of geometry, but wholly adapted to the capacity of children: a preliminary geometry, the demonstrations of which are not founded on mathematical reasoning, but solely on the evidence derived from ocular inspection. It begins with making the children observe, on a table constructed for that purpose, horizontal and vertical lines, and their different parts: then it shews the mode of constructing angles and squares, their sections, the relation of these sections to each other, the oblique and curve lines, the circle, &c. and all this in a manner which not only enables the pupils to judge, with the greatest precision, and without the assistance of instruments, of the true form, size, and just proportions of all visible objects, but leads him to geometry properly so called.

With these exercises of the eye and the mind, Pestalozzi combines those of the band. The child who, by the use of the geometrical tables, has acquired an idea of proportion and symmetry, is excited to acquire it in a still greater degree by executing the same things on a slate. After having exercised himself in tracing regular lines, in forming with them an gles, squares, and other figures (always giving an account of what he does), he begins the art of writing by tracing the first lines of the letters and the letters themselves in a series of squares; an exercise by which he lays the foundation of a steady, free, and bold hand-writing.

At the same time he begins the art of drawing, by tracing, in similar series of squares, figures which he copies from andther design, traced in the same manner. These exercises give facility not only in drawing regular figures, the models of which the children accustom themselves to find in their own imaginations, but likewise the designing of maps or other works, the exact proportion of which astonishes all those who see that all this is done without having recourse to either rule or compass.

The above are the elements of M. Pestalozzi's art of instruction, as far as it can be put in practice without the aid of the pupil's parents. The mode of communi

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cating them to the children is quite simple. All the objects of instruction being arranged in such a manner as to leave no doubt with respect to their truth, they do not require any explanation on the part of the preceptor: nothing more being necessary, but to shew to the child that which is to be taught, acquainting him at the same time with the name of the thing which he has observed. It is thus Pestalozzi proceeds. The master names the thing when pointing it out to the pupils,who express what they see by the same word that has been used by the master; and in general they recite their lessons all to gether, and in cadence. At the end of each paragraph, the master puts some questions relative to the objects which have just been treated of, that he may learn from the answers of the pupils, whether they have sufficiently imprinted it on their memory, or whether it will be necessary to repeat the lesson.

Though the above account gives but a faint idea of what is done in a school where every thing is calculated for oral demonstration, this sketch may nevertheless suffice to shew to those even who are least versed in the art of teaching, that the spirit of Pestalozzi's method is very different from the common routine. The following are the different points which seem to characterise his discovery: 1. The elements of instruction are fired by M. Pestalozzi with greater precision than they were before. The elementary instruction of children generally commences with reading, writing, and ciphering: but no one inquires why it should be so. Pestalozzi at last proposed this question, and has endeavoured to solve it himself. In searching for the way which nature herself indicates for the development of the mental powers, he has found the basis of all our knowledge in language, numbers, and form, whence result the abovementioned three branches of elementary instruction; and if he has not been able to exhaust the enquiry, he has at least the merit of having first pointed out the road, and made considerable progress.

2. Every one will admit that in making these three elements the basis, and putting off the art of reading to a more mature age, he has preserved un intimate connection between the different branches of elementary instruction, and, by these means, a conformity hitherto unknown in the progression of the whole art of instruction.

The arts of reading, writing, calculating, and design, had not before any rela

tion: but in the new method all the branches of elementary instruction are conjoined with each other by a natural progression.

3. To imprint these elements on the minds of the children, he uses the common mode of intuition, but in an improved manner; for instead of a simple passive impression which objects make spontaneously on the senses (in which the essence of intuition had hitherto been placed), he has made the culture of the mind an indispensable condition of it; and, as for the gradation from what is known to what is not known, which has always been observed in exposing the objects to the eyes of children, he has adopted it in the strictest manner, not regulating it with respect to the objects, but the progressive capacity of the children.

4. It is generally a distinct character of his method to observe a strict gradetion throughout, so that each part, and in particular each fundamental part, be indelibly imprinted on the mind before any other be added; and with this view he has combined all the points of his system with such order and precision, that the child, in increasing his knowledge, is only continually adding small supplements to the notions he had already acquired.

5. Another characteristic trait is, that, according to his method, knowledge is not communicated to the children by reasoning with them, but by furnishing them with the words which they must use in a quiring a knowledge of things. This cir cumstance gives to his method a mechanical air: but if the spirit of this instruction be duly attended to, it will soon be seen, that the teacher, who seems to be loading the memory with words, is only furnishing the terms most proper to es'press the sensations which the child himself experiences.

6. This method is not less remarkable by being founded altogether upon practice. The common mode of teaching is by means of certain rules which are given to the children, to be by them applied to the objects of instruction. Here the teacher only gives them exercises; but in performing these exercises, they are made to "practise the rules without having them formally pointed out to them; and it is not till after the children have acquired the necessary expertness in any art, that they are led to draw thence the rules of it. Virtue itself, according to this sys tem, must have become a inculty before the actions be regulated by matims.

7. Lastly, by facilitating the execution

of

of his system, Pestalozzi has merited the gratitude of all who are employed in the instruction of children. His elementary books do not, as is commonly the case, give separately the objects of instruction in the method of teaching; but they give the matter itself in the proper words and forms, so that the master who follows them literally, will attain his aim without any danger of going astray. It is on this Pestalozzi rests his assertion, that any person who is not altogether deprived of reason may teach according to his method; that every mother, even the most simple, may herself direct the lessons of her children; and that even a child who is a few steps farther advanced than its brothers or sisters, will be enabled to instruct them with success.

Thus the method of Pestalozzi will avoid all the inconveniencies to which the common mode of instruction is exposed; and, on the contrary, there will result from it advantages incompatible with the other.

In the common method of education, the child who, during its first years, was left to the pleasing impressions of the objects around him, and to his own ideas, must at the end of that period change all at once his accustomed manner of instructing himself, and adopt another, the contrast of which is sufficient to create disgust. Here, on the contrary, the first glimpse of discernment which is noticed in the child gives occasion to its first lessons; and the mode of instruction changes so little as it grows up, that the knowledge acquired at the age of maturity is only a continuation of the notions which the child had, as it were, imbibed with its mother's milk. The advantage of this must be obvious. As instruction from the very beginning has only the appearance of play, and as it preserves this character in all the gradations that are to be gone through, the child learns with the greatest ease, and at the same time with the greatest solidity, every thing which it is necessary to teach him; and gaily proceeding on the road towards perfection, he almost imperceptibly reaches the goal. No new encouragements are required to rouse the attention of the pupil; this has been sufficiently provided for by the objects which strike the senses, by the exact gradation with which they are presented to them, and by the exactness with which the lessons are adapted to the capacity of each scholar; for it does not happen here, as in the common modes of instruction, that some

make astonishing progress, while others seem to be becoming from day to day more stupid. If his first elementary lessons be repeated with sufficient perseverance, no one will be left wholly behind.

These are considerable advantages: but let us see what effects the mode of instruction will have on the cultivation of the mind. According to the old method, the first notions were most imperfect and erroneous: that of Pestalozzi, on the contrary, does not admit of any incomplete, vague, or false, notions; there is a certainty in every thing he teaches, be cause it is drawn from mathematical science or visible nature; every thing is evident, because it is to the senses he addresses himself; nothing is barren, because each idea springs spontaneously from the exercise of the child's understanding. The facts cannot be either effaced or changed; for they are presented quite naked to the eyes of the child; they are imprinted on the memory by practice, and are adopted only in consequence of the child's own conviction. There is no room to fear lest the verbiage of an unskilful teacher should spoil these good effects; for this verbiage is precluded by the precision of the prescribed method; and the custom of making seve ral children recite their lessons at the same time, has a tendency to keep attention alive.

We now come to draw conclusions:the child by this species of instruction acquires a firm and solid foundation for almost all the sciences and faculties which he will stand in need of in the succeeding periods of life. For instance, on the first lessons are founded, on the one side, the practical grammar spoken of above, and on the other all the sciences which are intuitive; on the enumeration of sensible objects arithmetic is founded, not only that which teaches to calculate by heart, but that the operations of which are performed by means of ciphers; and, lastly, on the simple exercises of measuring and delineation, geometry properly so called, and the ability to form a judgment of all measurable objects, as likewise the arts of writing and design, But this is not all: this method of instruction, although it does not admit of reasoning, nevertheless implants the dispo sition to become a rational being. By providing that the child be not forced to adopt a single sentiment on the au thority of another, but that all his ideas, all his judgments, all his conclusions, be 3 X 2

derived

derived from himself, it causes his mind to be developed in a manner the most agreeable to the progress of nature, and he will in time become a rational being, whose conduct will be regulated by order, good sense, and reflexion. I may even venture to say, that his character will thereby acquire firmness, constancy, and solidity.

But it may be said, of what use is it to cultivate the understanding of the child, or even to impart a strong character, if nothing be done to inspire religion and morality? Undoubtedly, if Pestalozzi had been so imprudent as to neglect this most important part of education, he would deserve severe reproach; but no one has more seriously attended to it. His ideas relative to this subject are so remarkable, that they deserve to be well considered by all who are engaged in the education of children: but to put them in practice, the affectionate care of a mother is so absolutely necessary, that they will be found suitable only to domestic tuition. According to Pestalozzi, the same person who undertakes the teaching of the first primary elements of knowledge, should likewise be charged with the religious and moral education; and that the child's mother is fittest for this double task.

M. Pestalozzi explains himself in the following manner: What is it that gives birth to the idea of a God? how do I come to believe, confide in him, to be happy in loving him, to devote myself to his service, to be grateful to him, and obey his laws? I soon find that if I had not felt similar emotions towards men, I should never have risen to sentiments of love, confidence, and devotion towards God, nor acquire the pleasing habit of obeying him; for he who does not love his brother, whom he seeth, how can he love his heavenly father, whom he does not see? On inquiring how these sentiments are awakened in the soul, it will be found that they are principally derived from the intimate relation which unites the child to its mother. The mother is impelled by instinct to watch over her child, to nourish him, to provide for his safety and well-being: guided by that instinct, she furnishes whatever is necessary for his subsistence; removes every thing that is disagreeable:-and the child, who has experienced the tender cares of his mother, at the moment when her assistance was necessary, feels himself happy with her this is the nascent sentiment of love! An unknown object

presents itself to his eyes; he is overpow ered and afraid; he begins to cry: the mother takes him in her arms, and endeavours to dispel his apprehension by caresses. The troubles of the child vanish in an instant; his tears cease to flow; and, smiling, he looks up to his mother without any mark of uneasiness. This is the nascent sentiment of confidence. The sentiment of gratitude and the habit of obeying are derived from the same source; and from the union of all these sentiments spring the first germs of conscience. By degrees, the child comes to discern, that it would not be just to disobey his mother; that undoubtedly his mother does not exist merely for the purpose of serving him; that those surrounding him are not made merely for his sake; and that he himself does not exist solely for the purpose of gratifying his desires: thus it is the sentiment of duty and right takes its rise. In the mean time the progressive energy of the child induces him to quit the hand of his mother: he has begun to feel his own strength; and, without being sensible of the change, he has begun to think that his mother is not so necessary to him as before. The mother, who notices the progress of his ideas, makes use of the favourable moment to suggest to hima the most sublime sentiment: and, embracing him with more than usual tenderness, she says to him with a most solemn voice: My dear child, There is a God! of whose aid and protection thou wilt stand in need when thou thinkest thou may'st do without thy mother; there is a God, who will provide for thy happimess when it will no longer be in my power.' From that moment the attachment and affections of the child will take a more elevated flight, he will give them to God: he will fulfil his duties, that he may please God, as he has hitherto fulfilled them for the purpose of pleasing his mother. Thus the affectionate care of the inother will secure the virtue of the child by means of religious sentiments, and strengthen his religion by means of the moral affections.”

From the above sketch it is hoped that the method of Pestalozzi will appear deserving of the general attention which it has excited. By its concordance with nature, by the solidity of the instruction which it forms on the matural vivacity and gaiety of children, by the ease with which it leads to the sciences, by the disposition which it continually communicates to the mind,

and

and by the firmness of character which it is calculated to inspire, it has already charmed all those who have had an opportunity of becoming intimately acquainted with it.

To the Editor of the Monthly Magazine.

SIR,

I happy to see the attention of two

of your correspondents drawn towards the cruelty of permitting animals, taken for distress, to remain several days in the common pound without sustenance: but I fear that the law, as it stands at present, cannot remove the evil.

The case to which your correspondents allude must, of course, be understood of beasts taken damage-feasant; that is, doing damage to the tenant of the soil, by treading down his grass or the like: be cause distress for rent-arrear may now be impounded where taken; and it may be sold and the expences of keeping the same defrayed out of the produce; whilst distress for damage-feasant, being left as at common law, is regarded as a mere pledge or security to compel the performance of satisfaction for damage done, and cannot be sold or disposed of by the distreinor.

If a live distress of cattle be impounded in a common pound-overt (that is open over-head) the owner must take notice of it at his peril; and he, not the distreinor, must provide them with food and necessaries: nay, if the distreinor give them meat, he cannot compel the owner to pay for it; and if they die for want of sustenance, it is the loss of the owner, even after a tender and refusal of damages. (Doct. and Stud. Dial 2 c. 27. Bl. Com. 3. p. 13.) For the common law of England, which is ever wise in principle, though sometimes insensible to those refinements which were, indeed, the growth of later ages, supposes that the owner will not fail to seek for and feed his beasts; and if not, it punishes him with their loss, rather than impose the duty of maintaining them on the distreinor, who is already damaged by their trespass.

Nor, it should seem, is the bayward of the pound obliged to feed them. For all pounds have not haywards; and whep they have, they are officers in leets, and the law takes not any notice of them: and a pound is the pound of him that uses it; and if it be broken, he, not the hayward, shall have his remedy for poundbreach, (Per Holt, C..J. in Vaspor and Edwards's Case, Hil. Term. 18. W. III.) For otherwise they would not perish for want,

as the law supposes they may when it adjudges their loss to fall on the owner, if it so happen. It is however provided by the Stat. 1. and 2 P. and M. c. 12. that no distress of cattle shall be driven out of the hundred where it is taken, unless to a pound-overt within the same shire, and within three miles of the place where it is

taken the feed, owner may know where

to find and feed, and replevy the distress.

If not owned or replevied, it is liable to be regarded as an estray; in which character it generally belongs to the lord of the manor as grantee of the crown. But for this purpose the cattle must be proclaimed in the church, and in two market-towns next adjoining the place where they are found, on market-days; and then if no man claims them, after proclamation and a year and a day passed, they belong to him without redemption He who takes an estray ought to find it victuals; and to provide that it doth not perish for want of good keeping; but otherwise if a distress. (Hil. 4 Jac. B. R. per cur. in Bagshaw and Gallard's case). And if the owner claims them within the year and day, he must pay the charges of keeping and proclaiming them. From the time, therefore, when the lord regards such beasts as estrays, it is not likely that they will be in want of food; but this is not until after the first procla mation (Henly and Welch II. Mod. 89); before which indeed they may die. And though Holt C. J. in that case said that the keeping for which the owner must pay (if he redeems them) commences from the seizure; yet it must mean from the seizure as an estray, and not from the taking damage-feasant.

For distress, and not seizure, is the technical word for the first taking; and Holt in the same case said that the owner is subject to pay for no more than a year's keeping; which he might be, if it were to be computed from the impounding. Nay the law of distress and estrays is so different, that he who takes a distress may not interfere with it even for its benefit, as to milk a cow; but as an estray he may. (Cro. Jac. 147, 148. 1 Roll. Abr. 879. S Danv. 282). Indeed the law presumes an intervening time during which the distress will want food, unless furnished by the owner; and it has adjudged to him the loss accordingly.

It may happen, without the wilful default of the owner, that, as a distress, his cattle may have been impounded several days without his knowledge; or a wealthy obstinate man may estimate their loss as

of