though the total mineral yield of 1884 reached the value of $4,452,050, of which $3,243,380 represented the output of gold, the mining industry has never been adequately developed; and for many years the country has been distinguished among its sister republics as a stock-raising and agricultural section. In 1873 the chief occupation of the people was cattle-raising, and the country possessed 1,389,800 head of cattle, 1,128,273 sheep and goats, 362,579 swine, 93,800 horses, and 47,200 mules. In eleven years this stock had much more than doubled, the reports for 1884 showing 2,926,733 cattle, 3,490,563 sheep and goats, 976,500 swine, 291,603 horses, and 906,467 mules. The agricultural industry was represented that year by 852,500 acres under cultivation, and a yield of coffee, the chief product, worth $11,255,000, of sugar $7,686,000, of corn $6,000,000, and of cocoa $2,998,000. The principal articles of export are coffee, cattle, sugar, hides, gold, cocoa, tallow, horses, skins, and cabinet woods; and of import, cotton, linen, silk, flour, provisions, hardware, and wines. The custom-house reports show the recent trade with the United States as follows: exports: (1880) $6,039,092, (1886) $5.791,621, (1887) $8,261,271; imports: (1880) $2,330,745, (1886) $2,695,588, (1887) $2,827,010.

The constitution of Venezuela is a close imitation of that of the United States, and guarantees personal and religious freedom to every citizen. Like all South American countries the prevailing form of religion is the Roman Catholic, but all its clergy are subordinate to the civil authorities, and there are no restrictions upon the observance of other forms. Its educational system is comprehensive, progressive, and handsomely supported. There are two large universities, six federal schools of the first class and fourteen of the second, four influential normal schools, twenty-four high grade private schools, nine national colleges for girls, a polytechnic institute, a school of arts and trades, a naval institute, and a school of telegraphy. Elementary education has been compulsory and gratuitous since 1870. A generous effort has been made to establish libraries throughout the country also. In 1874 all the public collections of books and documents, and those taken from the suppressed convents, were consolidated in the library of the University of Caracas, and there placed at the convenience of the public; and the government has since aided in the establishment of public libraries in each of the capitals of the eight states, besides founding a national museum in Caracas, which has valuable collections in the departments of national and natural history, ethnography, zoology, and geology. The chief cities are

Caracas, the capital, population (1887) 70,509, Valencia, 36,145, and Barquesimeto, 28,918. La Guayra is the seaport of the capital.

Columbus discovered the island of Margarita in 1498, and in the following year Vespucci examined the coast as far as the present Gulf of Maracaibo. A lacustrine Indian village was found, from which the Spaniards named the place Venezuela, or "Little Venice." In 1520 the first permanent settlement was made at Cumona; in 1522 Barquesimeto was founded; in 1555 Valencia; and 1557 Caracas. During a revolution in 1810-11 the people declared their independence of Spain, but were speedily subjected. In 1819 Venezuela, New Granada, and Ecuador united in forming the republic of Colombia, which was recognized by Spain in 1823. Six years afterward this republic was divided into three independent states, Venezuela adopting a federal constitution in 1830. The country has been more free from revolutions than most of the other South American republics, though it has had its share.

CITY OF CARACAS.

ARACAS, the capital of the republic as well as of the federal district,

is in latitude 10° 30′ 50′′ north, and longitude 67° 5′ west, at the eastern end of the valley of the same name, and nearly 3,000 feet above sea-level. Its streets and avenues cross one another at right angles, forming blocks of houses in almost exact squares. The city is well drained and abundantly supplied with wholesome water by several streams, and is kept remarkably clean by a host of carrion vultures that sweep through the streets and devour all manner of garbage and pestiferous refuse. Four beautiful avenues divide the city into equal parts, in each of which are numerous plazas or public squares, handsome gardens, churches, and public buildings. In the centre is the Plaza Bolivar, and from it extend the North, East, South, and West avenues in a straight line far out into the country. The streets running parallel to Avenues North and South, to the west of those thoroughfares, are designated by even numbers, and those to the east of the avenues by odd numbers; and the streets crossing these at right angles are given odd numbers if they lie to the north of Avenues East and West, and even if to the South. Caracas comprises five parishes, Alta Gracia in the northwest, Cadelaria in the northeast, Santa Rosalia in the southeast, Santa Teresa in the south, and San Juan in the southwest. In each of these there

is a parisn church, and in addition to them there are eight other churches in the federal district, which includes the actual extent of the city proper and its immediate suburbs. The cathedral and the church of Alta Gracia are the most notable buildings, though the University of Caracas, the National Museum close by, and several hospitals possess much national and local importance. The city is the seat of a Roman Catholic archbishop, is esteemed very healthful, and has been visited by several earthquakes, one of which, in 1812, caused the loss of over 12,000 lives. According to the last census there were 9,224 residences in the federal district, sheltering over 70,000 persons.

LA GUAYRA, the seaport, is in latitude 10° 36′ north, and 66° 57′ west, has a deep bay and a good anchorage, but is wholly unprotected against the furious east winds. It is the most extensively frequented port on the coast, is defended by the fort of Cerro Colorado and numerous coast batteries, has a healthful climate and a temperature ranging from 100° to 110° F., and enjoys an extensive foreign and coasting trade. It has but two streets. The population was estimated at 8,000 in 1887.

THE ARGENTINE REPUBLIC.

HE Argentine Republic, an independent state on the southeast coast of South America, previously known as the Provinces of the Rio de la Plata and afterward as the Argentine Confederation, is situated between latitude 22° and 56° south, and longitude 53° 30′ and 70° west, and since 1881 includes a large portion of Patagonia as well as of Terra del Fuego. It is bounded on the north by Bolivia and Paraguay, on the east by Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay, and the Atlantic Ocean, on the south by the Atlantic Ocean, and on the west by Chili, the Andes Mountains separating the two republics. Previous to the treaty with Chili in 1881, its area was estimated at 841,000 square miles, and its population at 1,768,681 in 1869, and 2,400,000, exclusive of 93,291 Indians, in 1876. After the cession of portions of Patagonia and Terra del Fuego, the area became enlarged to over 1,200,000 square miles, and the population to 2,942,000, which was officially divided as follows: natives, 2,121,000; Italians, 154,000; Spaniards, 73,200; French, 69,400; English and Irish, 23,000; and natives of other South American countries the remainder.

Over three-quarters of the country is a plain whose soil has been highly enriched by decayed vegetation, and is well watered by the Parana and its numerous tributaries. Excepting the extreme western border and a few isolated hills in the southeast, the country is exceedingly level and well adapted to agriculture, which is by no means pursued as extensively or systematically as the natural conditions would justify. The climate is in general healthy, though the atmosphere is very dry. In the south it resembles that of Norway, near Buenos Ayres that of England, and in the north that of France. The central portion is subject to warm north winds freighted with heavy vapor, heavy thunder-storms are frequent; the pampero, a strong southwest wind, brings dryness from the Andes, and the zonda, a lasting north wind, brings intense heat. Physical compensation, however, is found in invariably cool nights.

The natural resources are considerable and valuable, though lacking much of the means and spirit of development seen in the United States. There are large mines of gold, silver, iron-though the country imports from Europe almost all it needs-salt, gypsum, alum, sulphur, coal, copper, and pumicestone. Along the Andes and on the banks of the Paraguay River are dense forests of important woods, while palms and other tropical trees abound in the north. Animal life embraces the llama of the plains; jaguars, pumas, capibara, and ounce in the forests; tapir in the north; deer in the pampas or grassy plains; the condor, Caracara vulture, parrots, and humming birds of exquisite plumage and enchanting song; seals, sea lions, and sea elephants are taken on the coast, and the rivers abound with a variety of fish, lamprey, trout, skate, and other table favorites.

The chief industries are the cultivation of wheat, corn, oats, sugar cane, tobacco, cotton, flax, and peanuts, the breeding of cattle, goats, and sheep, mining and smelting of gold, silver, and copper, and the manufacture of guano, furs, ostrich feathers, and Liebig's extract of beef. The Pampa horse roams in herds of 8,000 to 10,000, and yields for export annually 250,000 hides, while cattle, which seem to swarm the plains in millions, furnish an average of 3,000,000 hides per annum for export. In 1881, 3,397 vessels of 413,419 tons entered, and 2,489 vessels of 321,168 tons cleared the various ports; and in 1882 the exports-about one-half hides and three-eighths wool -aggregated $58,441,000 and the imports $59,270,000. In the latter year there were 8,466 miles of telegraph and 1,617 miles of railroad in operation.

The republic is composed of fourteen provinces, of which those of Buenos

Ayres, Mendoza, Cordova, Corrientes, Salta, and Entre Rios are the most populous, each having over 48,000 inhabitants. The country is governed according to a constitution adopted in 1853 and since frequently revised, which invested the executive authority in a president elected by representatives of the provinces for a term of six years, the legislative in a congress composed of a house of representatives of fifty-four members and a senate of two members from each province, and the judiciary in a supreme court and a number of subordinate ones. The prevailing form of religion is the Roman Catholic, though all others are tolerated. Buenos Ayres has an archbishop, and the Littoral, Cordova, Cuyo, and Salta a bishop each. Prior to 1882 but little attention was paid the cause of education by the government, but since then universities have been erected in Buenos Ayres and Cordova, and colleges in those cities and in Concepcion.

The history of the Argentine Republic dates back to the year 1516, when Juan Diaz de Solis discovered the Plata River; but more immediately from the year 1535, when Don Pedro de Mendoza founded the city of Buenos Ayres, the present capital. For many years the settlements were subject to attacks by native Indians, and were controlled politically by the viceroy of Peru till 1778. The first confederation embraced the provinces of the Rio de la Plata, Paraguay, Uruguay, and Bolivia, which were formed into a separate viceroyalty of Peru, with Buenos Ayres as its capital, in 1778. In 1810 the viceroy was expelled, and in 1813 the Spanish authority was thrown off, and a republic was established by a constituent assembly. Three years later the united provinces declared their independence and elected a dictator of the republic; but it was not till 1821 that they succeeded in terminating the Spanish domination by force of arms in several brilliant engagements. Then followed a long period of revolutions, secessions, and bitter warfare. A peace was concluded 1840, but soon afterward complications arose which led to the intervention of France and England. Paraguay and Uruguay became independent republics. The province of Buenos Ayres seceded 1852, but re-entered the confederation 1859. The constitution was adopted May 11th, 1853, and was revised in 1860 and 1862, but the country was distracted by revolutions, incited mainly by aspirants to the presidency, to as late a period as 1880.