companies. In time of war, every regiment receives a fourth reserve battalion, and every battalion of chasseurs and riflemen an additional company. A battalion on the war footing numbers 1,025 men, inclusive of 22 officers, or in round numbers about 1,000 men. Prussia had thus an infantry force of 253 battalions, with 260,000 combatants, ready for the field, beside 83 battalions, with 85,000 men, as reserve troops, which partly would be employed for garrison service. The cavalry of the guard consists of 1 regiment guard du corps, 1 regiment of cuirassiers, 2 regiments of dragoons, 1 regiment of hussars, 3 regiments of ulans. The cavalry of the line contains 8 regiments of cuirassiers, 8 regiments of dragoons, 12 regiments of hussars, 12 regiments of ulans. Curassiers and ulans constitute the heavy dragoons, and hussars the light artillery. Thus there are 25 regiments of heavy and 23 regiments of light artillery. A regiment has generally four squadrons, but as the transformation of the landwehr cavalry is not yet completed, there were 4 regiments of hussars and 4 regiments of dragoons of 5 squadrons each. A squadron in the field has 155 men, inclusive of 5 officers. In time of war, a reserve squadron is formed for every regiment, numbering 200 men for the heavy cavalry and 250 for the light. The aggregate of the Prussian cavalry amounts, therefore, to about 30,000 horses, from to of the infantry. The aggregate of the reserve squadrons is 10,750 men. The artillery consists of one brigade of the guard and 8 brigades of the line. Each brigade has 2 regiments, 1 field regiment and 1 garrison regiment. The field regiment has 4 divisions, 1 mounted and 3 dismounted; each division has 4 batteries of 6 pieces of ordnance each. Together, a field regiment has 96 pieces of ordnance, besides a reserve division of 4 batteries, with 4 pieces of ordnance each. A garrison regiment has 2 divisions, each of which furnishes 4 companies for purposes of defence and siege. In addition to infantry, cavalry, and artillery, there are technical troops, consisting of 1 battalion of pioneers of the guard, and 8 battalions of pioneers of the line, which have to attend to the bridges, trains, field telegraphs, road and earthworks, and perform the technical services at the defence of and attacks upon fortresses. Each battalion has a reserve company. The train consists of 1 battalion of the guard, and 8 battalions of the line, together of 1,229 men and 1,566 horses. The standing army of Prussia has, accordingly, about 300,000 men, with 864 pieces of ordnance. The landwehr of the first call, which embraced the discharged soldiers up to the 36th year of age, numbered about 120,000 infantry and 7,000 cavalry. The landwehr of the second call, embracing the discharged soldiers to the 36th year of age, has 116 additional battalions of infantry, of 800 men each, together about 93,000, and for each battalion a cavalry squadron of 100 horses can be organized. This part of the landwehr is to be

called out only when the enemy has invaded the country. The whole of the Prussian army is divided into nine army corps, each consisting of 2 infantry divisions (each of 2 brigades, 4 regiments, 12 battalions, and from 12,000 to 15,000 men, infantry, with from 600 to 700 horsemen and 24 pieces of ordnance), 1 cavalry division (of 2 brigades or 4 regiments, with 1 or 2 mounted batteries, counting from 2,400 to 2,700 men), 1 artillery reserve (of 4 foot batteries and from 2 to 3 mounted batteries). Altogether an army corps has about 25,000 infantry, 3,600 cavalry, and 96 pieces of ordnance. If Prussia, in case of a great war, employed the landwehr of the second call for garrison service, she would have ready for the field about 380,000 infantry, 37,000 cavalry, and at least 864 pieces of ordnance. Prussian infantry are armed with the needlegun, of which the following is a representation:

The

Fig. 1 is a central longitudinal vertical section (full size) of the breech, cartridge-chamber, and lock, showing the breech closed for firing. Fig. 2 is a central longitudinal section of the cartridge. The breech, M, which is hollow, is, externally, like a door-bolt, with a knob-handle, M'; and it both slides longitudinally and turns in the cylindrical breech-receiver, A, into which the barrel is screwed. Into the front part of the breech, M, is screwed the needle-tube, N', through which the needle, N, slides freely. The needle is attached to the needle-bolt, K, which slides within the lock, L; and this latter slides within the breech. Around the front part of the needle-bolt there is an air-chamber, in rear of and in communication with the cartridge-chamber of the barrel. The main spring, by which the needle is shot forward to ignite the priming, is of spiral form and coiled around the needle-bolt in rear of the collar, K', which also forms a shoulder for the sere, C', which holds back the bolt when the piece is cocked. The sere is formed in the same piece with the sere-spring, C, which is connected with the trigger, T, in such a manner as to withdraw the sere from the collar, K', and allow the spring to drive forward the needle-bolt and needle. The breech, M, when brought up to its place for firing, as shown in Fig. 1, after inserting the cartridge, is turned by the knobhandle, M', to bring the said handle in front of the shoulder, a, on the breech-receiver; and, after firing, it is turned back away from the shoulder, a, and drawn back till the knobhandle is stopped. Attached to the lock, L, is the lock-spring, D, with a handle, D'. This spring is made with a catch at its front end, to draw back the needle-bolt; and the lock is made with a handle, L', by which it may be drawn back independently of the breech, while the latter is closed; but it is drawn back with the breech.

The bullet, E (Fig. 2), is acorn-shaped, and is fitted with a compressed paper sabot, F, which serves the purpose of cleaning the bore and of containing the fulminate priming, G, which is

Together, the "bersaglieri" consists of about 25,000 men. The cavalry consists of 4 regiments of cavalry of the line, 7 regiments of lancers, 7 regiments of light cavalry (cavaleggeri), together with about 13,000 men. The artillery has 480 pieces of ordnance.

Of the minor German States, the allies of Prussia were ready to furnish the following contingents Saxe-Weimar, Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, and Saxe-Altenburg, together, 7,500 men; Brunswick, 4,600; the two Mecklenburgs, 5,500 Oldenburg, 3,500; Anhalt, 2,000; the two Schwarzburgs, 1,800: Lippe Detmold and Schaumburg Lippe, 1,200; Waldeck, 800; Reuss Schleiz, 7,000; Hamburg, Bremen, and Lubeck, 3,600; together, 31,000 men. Schleswig-Holstein and Lauenburg would have been able to furnish additional, 20,000; but they were not organized at the beginning of the war. Baden, which sympathized with Prussia, though it was compelled to fight against it, had 13,000 men. Austria could rely on the assistance of Bavaria (63,000 men, 144 pieces of ordnance), Würtemberg (28,000 men, 52 pieces of ordnance), Hesse-Darmstadt (11,000 men, 38 pieces of ordnance), together, 102,000 men and 234 pieces of ordnance. Besides these States, the following had taken sides with Austria: Saxony (24,000 men); Hanover (21,000); Hesse-Cassel (11,000); Nassau (6,000); Saxe-Meiningen (2,000); Reuss Greiz (400); Frankfort (1,000); together, 65,000 men and 135 pieces of ordnance. But these States in case of a war were likely to be at once overrun by Prussian troops, and could not be expected to make their contingents available for Austria.

Beginning of the War-Occupation of Saxony, Hesse-Cassel, and Hanover, by Prussian Troops.-Immediately after the Federal resolution of the 14th of June, Prussia summoned the governments of Hanover, Saxony, and Hesse-Cassel to reduce their armies to the peace footing of the 1st of March, and to join the new German Confederation upon the basis of the Prussian draft of the 10th of June. In case of their compliance, Prussia promised to guarantee their rights of sovereignty within the bounds of the new German Confederation. All the three governments declined, whereupon, Prussia, on the 15th, declared war against them, and on the 16th marched troops into the countries now considered as hostile. Prussia had, for this purpose, organized the following troops: 1. Against Saxony, the so-called "Army of the Elbe," under General Herwarth von Bittenfeld, composed of the 8th Prussian army corps (of the Rhine provinces), which had been reenforced by one division of the 7th (Westphalian) corps. The headquarters of this army were in the southeastern part of the Prussian Province of Saxony, between Torgau and Eilenburg. 2. Against Hanover, a division under General von Manteuffel, in Schleswig-Holstein, and the 13th division of the Westphalian army corps, under General Vogel von` Falkenstein, which had been concentrated at Minden. 3.

Against Hesse-Cassel, a corps under General von Beyer, who had his headquarters at Wetzlar. In order to leave no enemy in the rear, it was necessary for Prussia to occupy, as soon as possible, Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, and Saxony. This part of the programme was executed with marvellous rapidity. During the night, from the 15th to the 16th of June, the Prussian General von Beyer concentrated a corps near the Hessian frontier, and at 2 o'clock A. M. began his march into the electorate. From Giessen he issued a proclamation to the "Hessian brethren," stating that the king carried on war against the elector, but not against the people, who, on the contrary, would now see better days than formerly. The troops of the elector speedily evacuated all the important places, and in the southernmost corner of the State effected a junction with the troops of Hesse-Darmstadt and other troops of the 8th Federal Army Corps, which soon, contrary to expectation, was also joined by the troops of Baden. The elector, who remained at his castle of Wilhelmshöhe, and refused the conditions under which Prussia offered to guarantee his sovereignty, was taken as prisoner to the Prussian fortress of Stettin, and his country placed under Prussian administration.

The Saxon government did not wait for the invasion of the Prussians, but, even before a formal declaration of war, the Saxon army marched into Bohemia, there to effect a junction with the Austrian troops. On the morning of the 16th King John left Dresden to seek a refuge in Bohemia. The treasures of the royal house and of the State were removed to the same country. Within a few days the whole of Saxony was, without offering any resistance, in the hands of the Prussians. Several railroads were torn up and the large bridge over the Elbe at Riesa was burned down by the Saxons, uselessly; for these acts were not required to protect the escape of the Saxon troops, and to the Prussians they did no harm.

The kingdom of Hanover was invaded, on the 16th of June, by General Vogel von Falkenstein, at the head of the 13th division, which had been concentrated at Minden. On the 17th the city of Hanover was occupied. The king had left his capital on the 16th, in order to join with the crown prince the Hanoverian army which was rendezvousing at Göttingen. From Schleswig and Holstein General von Manteuffel marched into Northern Hanover, and (June 18th, 1 o'clock, A. M.) surprised the fortress of Stade, where a large amount of war material was captured. The Hanoverian troops rapidly marched southward, in order to unite with the Bavarians, a corps of whom had advanced northward and occupied Coburg. On the 21st King George issued a farewell proclamation to his people, and with about 15,000 men and 56 pieces of ordnance marched through Prussian territory (Heiligenstadt, etc.) into the Thuringian States. Only small detachments of

the Prussians, in union with the troops of SaxeCoburg-Gotha, were here opposed to the Hanoverians. New negotiations between Hanover and Prussia failed (June 24), and the Hanoverians now made an attempt to break through the Prussian line somewhere between Gotha and Eisenach. The Prussians were rapidly reenforced both from the east and the west, and on the 27th General Fliess, at the head of about 7,000 men, attacked the Hanoverians at Langensalza. Before the larger number of the Hanoverian army, which fought with the utmost bravery, the Prussians had to fall back with a loss of 321 men in killed and wounded. As, however, the Bavarians did not come to the relief of the Hanoverians, and the latter convinced themselves that the Prussians had amassed a vastly superior force south of them, a capitulation was concluded on the 29th of June, in virtue of which all the war material and ammunition were surrendered to the Prussians. The men were disarmed and sent home; the officers retained their swords, and pledged themselves not to use them in this war against Prussia. King George and the crown prince were left at liberty to go where they pleased.

Opening of the Austrian-Italian War-The Battle of Custoza-Garibaldi_on_the_Frontier of Southern Tyrol-The Italian Fleet at Ancona. The formal declaration of war by Italy against Austria took place on the 20th of June. The Italians opposed to the Austrians four army corps. The 1st, consisting of 4 divisions, under General Durando, who had his headquarters at Lodi, was to operate against the Garda Lake and the Upper Mincio; the 2d (3 divisions), under Cuchiari, had its headquarters at Cremona, and was to advance upon Mantua and the Lower Mincio; the 3d (4 divisions), under Della Rocca, was placed behind the two preceding ones, and had its headquarters at Piacenza; the 4th (5 divisions), under Cialdini, had its headquarters at Bologna, and was intended to operate against the Lower Po and the Lower Adige. The Austrians, in their turn, had three army corps (the 5th, 7th, and 9th), under the chief command of Archduke Albrecht, who had distinguished himself at Novara; two occupied strong positions on the Mincio and the Adige, in the celebrated Quadrilateral, while one held possession of Eastern Venetia and Istria. The 3d army corps, under Archduke Ernest, with its headquarters at Laybach, first formed a general reserve, but was soon moved northward to reenforce the army in Germany. The Italian declaration of war was signed by General La Marmora, and addressed to Archduke Albrecht. It announced the beginning of hostil'ties within three days. On the 23d of June the preparations of the Italians for an attack were completed. Having erroneously inferred, from the information received by them, that the Austrians did not intend to defend the country between the Mincio and the Adige, but would await the Italians behind the Adige, the Italians resolved to pass the Mincio and secure a

fortified position between the fortresses of Peschiers and Verona, by occupying, upon the heights south of the Lake of Garda, the triangle formed by Valeggio, Castelnovo, and Somma Campagna. The troops which were to be employed for these movements were the 1st, 2d, and 3d army corps, which, together with some reserve troops, numbered about 146,600 men, and had 228 pieces of ordnance. Of these, about 117,000 men with 192 pieces of ordnance were immediately available in case of battle. The Austrians, to meet the attack, had about 73,000 men and 272 pieces of ordnance available.

On the 24th of June the 1st army corps was ordered to advance upon Castelnovo, where it was to establish its headquarters. The division Cerale was to advance directly upon this place, the divisions Sirtori and Brignore were to march upon S. Giustina and Sona; the division Pianelli to remain on the right bank of the Mincio. The Third army corps was to seize Somma Campagna and Villafranca, and the reserve cavalry to occupy Quaderni and Mozzecane. South the latter position, two divisions of the 2d army corps were stationed as a reserve at Roverbella and Marmirolo. The commander-inchief of the Austrians, Archduke Albrecht, was under the impression that the Italians intended to march directly through the valley between the Mincio and the Adige, to secure a passage of the latter river, and then to effect a junction with Cialdini. He resolved to direct the main attack upon the left flank of the advancing Italians; and in the evening of the 23d ordered that his troops, on the morning of the 24th, should form a line running from Sandra over S. Giustina, Sona to Somma Campagna, then immediately advance so as to form the line of Castelnovo, S. Giorgio, and Somma Campagna. On the 24th of June, at 3 o'clock in the morning, the 9th Austrian army corps advanced from S. Lucia (near Verona) upon Somma Campagna; the Fifth army corps, which on the 23d had occupied Sona, advanced upon S. Giorgio, the reserve division, which had been stationed at Sandra, upon Castelnovo. The cavalry brigades, to the left of the 9th army corps, de

figures have been used to explain the position and move

NOTE.-On the map on page 361, the following letters and

ments of the two armies: