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and the matter of which it consisted was evidently in the state of ignited gas. The coma probably shone by refected solar light-the spectrum of the light of the coma differing entirely from that characterizing the light emitted by the nucleus. The prism gives no information whether the matter forming the coma be solid, liquid, or gaseous, though terrestrial phenomena would suggest that the parts of a comet, which are bright by reflecting the sun's light, are probably in the condition of fog or cloud. The nitrogen line is the only one detected in the nucleus. We must wait for a comet of sufficient splendor to permit the satisfactory prismatic examination of its physical state during various changes of its perihelion passage.

Father Secchi, at Rome, in January, 1866, made a spectrum analysis of Tempel's comet, and found the light monochromatic (green), similar to that of the nebula in Orion. The monochromatic condition of the light he attributes to a molecular constitution different from that which forms the planets and stars. He infers that not all the light which comes from the comet is reflected from the sun, or, if it is so, that it suffers a singular sort of absorption. The spectrum of the comet exhibited three principal lines on a faintly-shaded ground. The latter is probably due to light reflected from the sun; the residue, the light of the comet itself.

Influence of the Tidal Wave on the Moon's Motion. Mr. Adams and M. Delaunay, have shown by their recent investigations that the change in the eccentricity of the earth's orbit accounts for only about one-half of the secular acceleration of the moon's motion, viz., about six seconds in a century. Prof. Harrison suggests that the other half might be accounted for simply by assuming that the length of the sidereal day has increased by merely .01197 of a second in the course of 2,000 years. M. Delaunay subsequently showed that the retarding effect of the tidal wave, originally pointed out by M. Mayer, twenty years ago, sufficed to account for the increase required in the length of the day. He concluded that the six seconds of acceleration resulting from the change of eccentricity in the earth's orbit are real, but that the other six seconds are only apparent. At a still later date M. Delaunay admitted that the tides produce a real acceleration of the moon's motion. In a paper, published in the "Philosophical Magazine" last August, by Mr. Croll (the second on that subject by the author), he offered the following considerations to show that the solar wave must diminish the earth's motion around the common centre of gravity of the earth and moon, and must therefore accelerate the angular motion of the moon. Suppose the rotation of the earth to be reduced to that of the moon, viz., once a month. In that case the earth would always present the same side to the moon. The lunar wave would of course exist

the same as at present, but would remain sta tionary on the earth's surface. The solar wave would also exist the same as it does now, bu would move round the earth once a month, instead of once in twenty-four hours as at present. However slow the motion, a considerable amount of heat would be generated by friction, The source from which the energy lost in the form of heat would be derived, would evidently be the rotation of the earth round the common centre of gravity; for it is to this source that the motion of the water is due. Now the effects which would take place under these circumstances do actually take place under the present order of things. The two sets of effects caused by the lunar and the solar waves do not interfere with each other; consequently the solar wave must be slowly consuming the vis viva of the earth's rotation round the common centre of gravity. It is this vis viva which keeps the earth and moon separate from each other. As the vis viva is consumed, the two must approach each other, and thus the angular motion of the moon be accelerated. The solar wave does not consume the vis viva of the moon's motion around the common centre, but only that of the earth. Since the earth is gradually approaching nearer to the moon in consequence of the consumption of centrifugal force, which keeps it separate from that orb, the moon must therefore be moving with all its original vis viva in an orbit which is gradually becoming less and less, and the period of its revolution is consequently diminishing in length. According to M. Croll's calculation, it is therefore merely a question of time-though the possible date of the catastrophe is incalculably remote-when the earth and moon shall come together.

The Zodiacal Light.-M. Liandier, in the Comptes Rendus, says that he has watched the zodiacal light for several years, during the evenings of February and March. In 1866 he observed it from the 19th of January to the 5th of May. He reports that it has the shape of a perfect cone, varing in luminosity and color from a dull gray to a silver white, its changing aspect probably being caused by the condition of our atmosphere. In February the summit of the cone reached Pleiades, and the Twins in May. Between January and May he found it to follow the zodiacal movements of the sun. M. Liandier believes the luminous cone to be a fragment of an immense atmosphere, which envelops the sun on all sides. If so, he says it may be expected to exercise an enormous pressure on the sun, with a great development of heat, and, if local variations occur, may explain the phenomena of sun-spots, through the reduction of temperature that would follow its diminished pressure.

Nebula. About sixty nebulæ, examined by Mr. Huggins during the past year, reveal a spectrum of one, two, or three bright lines. Their elements cannot be determined, and the material of the nebula is supposed to be luminous

gas. The light of three nebula was compared
with that of a sperm candle burning 158 grs. an
hour, with the following result: the estimation
being made in the brightest part of the nebula:
Intensity of nebula, No. 4,629, IHIV—,
Intensity of annular nebula in Lyra....
Intensity of dumb bell nebula..

The nebula which have thus far been ex-
amined may be divided into two great groups;
one giving bright lines with a faint spectrum
background, the other giving apparently a con-
tinuous spectrum. The nebula in the sword-
handle of Orion exhibits three bright lines; and
in Lord Rosse's telescope reveals a large num-
ber of very minute red stars, which do not fur-
nish a visible spectrum. The bluish-green mat-
ter of this nebula has not yet been resolved.
The question arises: Are all the unresolved
nebula gaseous, and those which give a con-
Half of the
tinuous spectrum clusters of stars?
nebula which give a continuous spectrum have
been resolved, while of the gaseous nebula
none have certainly been resolved.

The Force which prolongs the Heat and Light of the Sun and other Fixed Stars.-Prof. Ennis, in his interesting treatise on the "Origin of the Stars," propounds the following theory of the force which has given so prolonged a duration to the light and heat of the sun: That the chemical force now active in the sun is the conversion or conservation of the atomic force of repulsion which once held the solar system in a nebulous condition-that condition being one of inconceivable rarity. This atomic force must have been inconceivably great, and, beIn fact, ing indestructible, must still exist. it is now, and has long been, passing off as light and heat through conversion into chemical forces. But why suppose that the original repulsive force is converted into light and heat through chemical agencies, rather than through electricity or some other means? The answer is because the present action in the sun, and in the fixed stars, and the former action in our earth, all strongly indicate chemical action. This force now operates in the sun and other fixed stars by three methods.

First. There are reasons to believe, from the nature of matter, that the materials in the sun may possibly give out more heat than those in our earth. On this planet one substance gives out more heat than another of equal weight; as, for instance, a pound of hydrogen produces more than four times the heat of a pound of Between other elements there are carbon. similar differences. Chemical diversities seem endless in number, and immeasurable in extent. Every star, so far as yet known, has a different set of fixed lines in the spectrum, although there are certain resemblances between them. It may, therefore, be concluded that each star has, in part at least, its peculiar modifications of matter called simple elements. The peculiar elements of the sun may differ from ours in heat-producing power as much as ours differ from one another in den

sity, and this is as 256,700 (hydrogen) to 1 (pla-
tinum). The assumption that the materials of
the sun can give out no more heat, pound per
pound, than the materials of the earth, is there-
fore unfounded.

Second. The conditions for producing heat
in the vast laboratory of the sun, are different
from those with which we are familiar on this
earth. Combustion, with us, is always between
a gaseous body and another which may be,
either gaseous, liquid, or solid; while in the sun'
the chief combustion takes place between liquid
materials, for the liquid body of the sun is the
hottest. Pressure exercises an important in-
fluence on combustion; and the pressure of
the atmosphere of the sun must be inconceiv-
ably great considering the height of the atmos-
phere and the powerful attraction of the sun;
but even that is as nothing compared with the
pressure in the liquid body of the sun, many
thousand miles down. The force of chemical
attraction which impels atoms to unite in col-
lision, thereby causing heat, may be in some
way more powerful in the sun than on the
earth. The ether or ethers around the sun
Third. New combustibles may now be pre-
may contribute to the production of heat.
paring in the sun from materials which have
already been burned. According to the neb-
ular theory, what we call the simple elements
are mere modifications of one general fundamen.
tal matter. These modifications have arisen
during the process of condensation, and must
still be forming in the sun, because the sun is
eight times less dense than is required by the
law of density in the solar system, and will con-
tinue to form until its fires are burned out,
and its due density is reached. Our "simple
elements" may be not only compounds but
double compounds, or compounds that are the
result of hundreds or thousands of compound-
ings. In this way there must have been, at
After one set had combined,
different periods, entirely different sets of ele-
ments in the sun.
producing light and heat by the combination,
the resulting compound products may have
again combined, with the same effect of light
and heat, and so on in a continuous line of
changes until the sun has attained its proper
density, its fires are extinguished, and it be-
comes a "lost star," like the earth and the
other members of the solar system.

With regard to the ultimate identity of suns, planets, and moons, Prof. Ennis says: "We are really treading on a fixed star. Here we have an opportunity of leisurely observing how a fixed star appears after its light has gone out. As in a forest we note the progress of the oak, from the acorn to the tall tree, some just rising from the ground, others vigorous in the sapling growth, and others whose trunks are populated with mosses and lichens, and whose branches are alive with birds, so we can see like stages of progress among the heavenly bodies, our earth included. Some are glowing with the fervor of most intense heat; others, like ou

earth, are cooled on their surfaces, and with only volcanoes to tell of their molten history; and others, like our moon, are still further on in their history, where even volcanic energy has become cold and dead. Some are invariably bright, and others, like our sun, exhibit comparatively small dark spots on their sides. Some at each rotation have their light slightly dimmed with spots; others again are dimmed more and more, and still others have at each rotation their light entirely hid. At last we behold others whose light goes out entirely, perhaps to be rekindled by a temporary glow, and to be called by astronomers a temporary star, and then its light is gone, dark, forever dark, not to be a dreary solitude, but in a resurrection morn to be reillumined, like our earth, with the happy light of intellectual life and social enjoyment.'

Asteroids.-The 85th asteroid has been named Io, which is also the designation of one of the satellites of Jupiter. On the 4th of Janaary, 1866, Dr. F. Tietjen at Berlin, discovered a new asteroid (86) of the 12th magnitude, near to asteroid 85, whose place he was then engaged in determining. It has received the name of Semele. Mr. Pogson, at Madras, discovered an asteroid (87) on the 16th of May, whose magnitude he estimated at 11.5. Dr. C. H. F. Peters, at the Hamilton College Observatory, discovered on the 15th of June, No. 88, a little brighter than stars of the 12th magnitude. The last two asteroids are named respectively Sylvia and Thisbe. The 89th asteroid was discovered by M. Stephan, the director of the Marseilles Observatory, in the constellation of Capricorn. It is estimated at the 9th magnitude. On the 11th of October, Dr. Luther, of Bilk, near Düsseldorf, discovered the 90th asteroid, which is of the 11th magnitude. The discovery of the 91st asteroid at the Marseilles Observatory, reported by M. Le Verrier to the French Academy, completes the list announced for the year.

The Astro-Photometer.-Zollner gives the following results of his recent observations with the astro-photometer.

The light of the sun, in comparison to that of the star Capella, is as 55,760,000,000 to 1, with a probable error of about 5 per cent.

The following is Zollner's estimate of the comparative light of the sun with several of the planets:

Prob. error.
.5.8 per ct.
.5.7

6,994,000,000 times Mars..
5,472,000,000 times Jupiter....
130,980,000,000 times Saturn (with-

Sun

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8,486,000,000,000 times Uranus....6.0

79,620,000,000,000 times Neptune..5.5
619,000 times Full Moor...

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By comparing surfaces, the sun = 618,000 times the full moon, with a probable error of 1.6 per cent.

.ax of 0" 874. Peters has actually found 0" 046. If the light suffers no absorption in the celestia. spaces, Capella must give out much more light than the sun; and a Centauri seems to be equal to the sun.

Works and Memoirs.-Among the works and memoirs upon astronomical subjects published in this country during the present year, may be mentioned the following: The Origin of the Stars, by Jacob Ennis, 12mo, D. Appleton & Co.,; Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences, 4to, Government_printing-office, Washington; Annals of the Dudley Observatory, vol. i.; a new edition (3d) of Olmsted's Astronomy, revised by E. S. Snell, LL. D., Professor of Natural Philosophy in Amherst College. At the meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, at Buffalo, in August (after a suspension of meetings for five years, in consequence of the war), the following papers bearing upon astronomical topics were read: Spots on the Sun, by Prof. E. Loomis; on the Period of Algol, by the same; on Fundamental Star Catalogues, by Prof. T. H. Safford, of Chicago. At the August meeting of the National Academy of Sciences, John N. Stockwell read a paper on the Secular Acceleration of the Moon's Mean Motion; Prof. B. Pierce, on the Origin of Solar Heat; Prof. T. Strong, on a New Theory of Planetary Motion; and Lewis M. Rutherfurd, on Astronomical Photography.

AUSTRIA.* Emperor, Francis Joseph I., born August 18, 1830; succeeded his uncle, Ferdinand I. (as King of Hungary and Bohemia called Ferdinand V.), on December 2, 1848. Heir apparent, Archduke Rudolph, born August 21, 1858.

In consequence of the German-Italian war, Austria lost the crown-land of Venetia, which was annexed to Italy. The cession of this province reduced the area of Austria to 239,048 English square miles, and the population to 32,573,002. Of this total population 21,521,713 are Roman Catholics; 3,536,608, Greek Catholics; 2,921,541 (non-united) Greeks; 1,218,750, Lutherans; 1,963,730, Reformed; 50,887, Unitarians; 3,944, members of other sects; 1,043,448, Israelites. As regards nationalities, the empire has now 7,877,675 Germans, 11,044,872 Northern Slavi, 3,955,882 Southern Slavi, 581,126 Western Roumanians (Italians, etc.), 2,642,953 Eastern Roumanians, 4,947,134 Magyars, 1,210,949 persons of other races.

The receipts in the budget for 1866 were estimated at 495,004,238 florins, and the expenditures at 535,143,384 florins. The public debt amounted, on January 30, 1866, to 2,831,211,195 florins. The portion reimbursable and bearing interest is represented by 720,787,485 florins: not bearing interest, 313,334,643 florins; and the portion not repayable, and bearing interest, 1,797,060,043 florins; and bearing no interest,

From the above estimates, it may be inferred that the sun, at a distance of 3.72 years way of light, would appear like Capella with a paral- ANNUAL CYCLOPEDIA for 1865.

For the latest commercial statistics received from Austria, and for an account of the Austrian Reichsrath, seo

AUSTRIA.

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Total...... .255,733

625,653

The navy consisted, in December, 1865, of 66 steamers, with 13,580 horse-power, and 723 guns; and 51 sailing vessels, with 340 guns.

The relations between Austria and Prussia were, from the beginning of the year, most unfriendly. In a note, of February 7th, Austria declined to acknowledge the grievances expressed in a Prussian dispatch of January 26th, with regard to the Austrian administration of the duchy of Holstein, and defended its right of independent administration. In the course of March Austria began to arm, and on March 16th established a council of war in the cities of Prague, Pisek, Tabor, and Pilsen. On the same day the Austrian Government addressed a circular to the Governments of the Germanic Confederation concerning its relations with Prussia, and intimated that it would appeal to the Confederation. In reply to the remonstrances of the Prussian Government, the Austrian envoy at Berlin declared, on March 31st, that his Government had not the remotest thought of attacking Prussia, and that the emperor had no intention to act contrary to art. 11 of the Federal pact. The same assurances were repeated in a note of April 7th, and the hope was expressed that, as Austria had not taken any extraordinary military measures, Prussia would not execute the military orders that had recently been given by her. In a note of April 18th Austria declared her readiness to disarm on a fixed day (April 25th) if she could rely upon the same conduct on the part of Prussia. The Prussian Government having virtually assented to that proposition, Austria declared, in a note of April 26th, that she would disarm on the Bohemian frontier before Prussia, hoping that the armament in Italy would not be regarded as being directed against Prussia. In a second note, of the same date, Austria urged a mutual understanding in the Schleswig-Holstein question, and indicated the concessions which she was ready to make to Prussia, namely, the definite cession of the military positions of Kiel, Rendsburg, and Sonderburg; a cession of territory for the establishment of fortifications at Düppel and Alsen; the union of the duchies with the Zollverein; and the construction of a canal from the German Sea to the Baltic. It was also intimated that if Prussia should refuse to accede to these propositions, Austria would appeal to the Confederation. These propositions appearing unacceptable at Berlin, Austria again, in a note of May 4th, assured Prussia of her pacific inten

tions, but insisted on her right of arming against
Italy, in order to protect not only her own fron-
tier, but the frontier of Germany. This note
ended the diplomatic correspondence concern-
ing the armaments, and henceforth both powers
prepared for the great struggle. An invitation
(May 28th) from the great neutral powers to take
part in a peace conference was accepted by
Austria, upon the condition, however, that from
the negotiations every combination should be
excluded which would tend to give to any one
of the powers an aggrandizement of territory.
Thus the last attempt to prevent war failed.
On June 1st Austria formally appealed for a
decision on the Schleswig-Holstein question to
The Prussian Government
the Federal Diet.
having maintained, in a note of June 3d, that
Austria, by the proposition made at the Federal
Diet, had violated the treaty of Gastein, and
thereby justified Prussia in falling back upon the
provisions of the treaty of Vienna (a common
occupation of the duchies), the Austrian Gov-
ernment, on June 9th, replied that the arrange-
ments between Prussia and Austria could not
be prejudicial to the rights of the Confedera-
tion, and that Prussia had already previously
violated the treaty of Gastein (for instance, by
having the question of succession decided by
the crown syndics, by imposing fines based
upon this decision, etc.) Hostile movements of
Prussia against Saxony, Hanover, and Hesse-
Cassel having begun on June 15th, the emperor
on June 17th addressed a manifesto to the people
of the empire, which Count Mensdorff commu-
nicated to the representatives of Austria at for-
eign courts. On June 18th, the first Austrian
troops crossed the Prussian frontier, thus actu-
ally opening the war against Prussia and Italy,
which, after the short duration of a few weeks,
ended in the total defeat of Austria, and the
loss of one of her richest crown-lands. The pre-
liminaries of peace between Austria and Prussia
were signed at Nicholsburg on July 26th. Be-
tween Austria and Italy an armistice was signed
on August 11th. The definitive treaty of peace
between Austria and Prussia was signed at
Prague, on August 23d, and that between Aus-
tria and Italy at Vienna, on October 4th. (For
a full history of this war, see the article GER-
MAN-ITALIAN WAR.)

The German provinces of Austria were
On September 9th a
greatly agitated relative to their future rela-
tions with Germany.
meeting of the deputies of the German Diets
of Austria was held at Aussee, Steiermark, to
consider the measures to be adopted for deter-
mining the position of the German population
of Austria, and for preserving their connec-
tion with Germany. The meeting recognized
the formation of a united German party as in-
dispensable, and that the principal of dualism,
with the restriction that certain matters be rec-
ognized as common affairs and dealt with by
common parliamentary treatment, was the only
arrangement by which real liberty could be at
tained. It was further agreed that the state of

things imperatively called for a clear definition of the competency of the representative assemblies, with a reservation in favor of the maintenance of the peculiar institutions of the different countries, as well as for a revision of the constitution by a legal and general representation of the countries this side the Leitha.

The relations of Austria with Italy seemed, at the beginning of this year, to improve, by an order of the Austrian ministry (February 16th), extending the provisions of the Austro-Sardinian treaty of commerce of 1851 to all merchandise arriving in Austria from any part of the Italian kingdom. The arming of Austria against Prussia led, however, to an alliance between Prussia and Italy, and to a participation of the latter power in the German-Italian war. The conclusion of peace united the larger portion of the Italian subjects of Austria with Italy; but there remains a strong Italian party in Southern Tyrol which demands annexation to Italy, and which is likely to be the cause of future trouble between Austria and Italy. (See ITALY.)

In October Baron von Beust, formerly Minister of Foreign Affairs in the kingdom of Saxony, was appointed by the emperor Minister of Foreign Affairs. It was understood that the chief aim of the new ministry would be to conciliate all the different nationalities of the empire, and, in particular, the Hungarians. In a circular, dated November 2d, and addressed to the diplomatic agents of Austria abroad, Baron von Beust spoke of the policy to be pursued by the Government as follows:

"His majesty the emperor has deigned to appoint me his Minister of Foreign Affairs. Penetrated by unbounded gratitude for this signal mark of confidence, I have no other ambition than to render myself worthy of it, and to devote my whole life to the service of his majesty. While desiring to profit by the experience I have gained elsewhere, I consider myself, however, separated from my political past from the day on which, thanks to the will of his imperial and apostolic majesty, I became an Austrian, and I shall only preserve in my new position the testimony of a deeply venerated sovereign whom I feel I have served with zeal and fidelity. It would suppose in me, especially at the commencement of my new career, a strange forgetfulness of my duties to believe me capable of bringing to them preferences or resentments from which in truth I feel completely exempt. I beg you, sir, not in my own interest, but in that of the emperor's service, to thoroughly understand this, and to make it understood in the conversations you may have on this subject. The Imperial Government, all the efforts of which must tend to remove the traces of a disastrous war, will remain faithful to that policy of peace and conciliation which it has always followed; but while the unfortunate issue of a recent struggle renders this a necessity, it at the same time imposes upon the Government the duty of showing itself more than ever jealous of its dignity. The imperial mission will, I am

certain, cause it to be respected under all circumstances, and they will find in me a support which will never fail them. It remains for me to express to you the satisfaction I experience upon entering into regular relations with you, and to beg of you to be kind enough to facilitate my duties by seconding the efforts I shall make in order to fulfil them according to the intentions of our august master, and so that too much regret may not be felt for a predecessor so justly surrounded by the esteem and confidence of his subordinates."

The policy of Baron Beust raised great hopes among the Hungarians, but created a great deal of dissatisfaction among the Germans.

One of the most indispensable reforms, in the opinion of the Government, was that of a total reorganization of the army. It was semiofficially announced that the chief points of the proposed reform of the Austrian military organization would be as follows: The army to be supplied with breech-loaders; simplification of the commissariat regulation; a new audit system, and prompt examination of all military accounts; the improvement of the educational institutions for the army; the formation of officers' schools; strict examination for those aspiring to become officers and staff officers; a new law of promotion; changes in the organization of the general staff; reform of the military penal laws; alleviations of the burdens of the public treasury by a considerable reduction in the number of officers, and the partial cessation of promotions; and special ordinances with regard to furloughs and removal from active service. nouncement created great dissatisfaction, especially in Hungary.

This an

On October 27th a man was arrested in Prague, charged with an intent to assassinate the emperor. The Austrian papers stated that when the emperor was leaving the Czech theatre at Prague, an English captain (Palmer), who was among the crowd of spectators, saw a man near him raise his right hand, in which he held a small pistol. Captain Palmer struck down his arm, and seized him by the collar. The man immediately slipped the pistol into the side-pocket of his paletot. On inquiring, it was found that he was a journeyman tailor. When arrested he dropped a piece of black silk, in which were found powder, three caps, and two large pieces of lead. The pistol was loaded and cocked, but it had no cap on. This was, however, found opposite the principal entrance to the theatre, by two young men, after the emperor had left. The investigation of the affair left it, however, doubtful as to whether the man arrested really meant to take the life of the emperor.

The difficulties between Austria and Hungary remained unsettled. In consequence of the disastrous result of the German-Italian war, the Austrian Government showed a disposition to grant most of the demands of the Hungarians, but no full agreement had been arrived at at the close of the year when, on the

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