specially reserved for the sovereign and forbidden to all subjects, however high in rank.

First. Showing his face to his subjects from the palace balcony in the morning. This was called darshan, from a Sanskrit word meaning 'the view of an idol or saint.' The Emperor Akbar began this practice. As his Court historian Abul Fazl writes,

"His Majesty generally receives twice in the course of twenty-four hours, when people of all classes can satisfy their eyes and hearts with the light of his countenance. First, after performing his morning prayers, he is visible from outside the awning to people of all ranks,...without any molestation from the mace-bearers. (Ain., i. 196.)

In the eastern wall of the Agra palace (as well as at Delhi) there is a balcony, called the jharokha-i-darshan, overlooking the foreshore of the Jamuna which stretches like a plain below. Vast crowds of expectant people assembled on this sandy plain every morning while the Emperor was in residence. He used to appear at the balcony about three quarters of an hour after sunrise and show his face to his subjects, who at once bowed, while he returned their salute. Half an hour or more was spent here, not merely in showing himself but also in doing business. The plain being outside the fort walls, the public had free access to it, and the oppressed could submit their petitions and make their complaints to the Emperor without having to grease the palms of the door-keepers and courtunderlings. Often a string was let down from the balcony, and the people tied their petitions to it, which were then drawn up by the attendants and submitted to the Emperor.

Curiously enough, there arose a class of servile people called the darshaniyas, who formed themselves into a sect of the Emperor's worshippers, like the guilds of Augustales in the Roman empire. These men did not begin their day's work nor eat their breakfast until they had gazed at the auspicious face of the Emperor in the morning, just as devout Hindus at

Gaya and Jagannath-Puri act in respect of the local idols.

Aurangzib put an end to this practice of man-worship, by refusing to appear at the balcony of morning salute from the 11th year of his reign onwards. (Khafi Khan, ii. 213.)

Second. Chauki and taslim of chauki, i.e., making the nobles mount guard round the royal residence and formally salute the place. Akbar instituted the practice. I quote from the Ain-i-Akbari (i. 257).

"Mounting guard is called chauki in Hindi. The four divisions of the army have been divided into seven parts, each of which is appointed for one day, under the superintendence of a trustworthy mansabdar. They are day and night in attendance about the palace, ready for any orders His Majesty may issue. In the evening the imperial standards ( qur ) are taken to the Hall of Public Audience. The mounting

guards stand on the right; the ranks of the guards to be relieved are drawn up on the other side. Both ranks salute His Majesty......If any one is absent without proper excuse,......he is fined one week's pay or receives a suitable reprimand."

Bernier gives us fuller information :

"An umara must also, in rotation, keep guard in the fortress ( i. e., the Emperor's palace enclosure) once every week, during four and twenty hours. He sends thither his bed, carpet and other furniture; the king supplying him with nothing but his meals. These (dishes) are received with peculiar ceremony. Thrice the umara performs the taslim, or reverence, the face turned towards the royal apartment; first dropping the hand down to the ground, and then lifting it up to the head. (Pp. 214 and 258.)

"The Rajahs ( i. e., Hindu mansabdars) never mount guard within a fortress, but invariably without the walls, under their own tents" (p. 210 ).

This mounting guard round the royal residence, though it was for 24 hours only in a week, was considered an irksome duty by the nobles, but it was always insisted upon by the Emperors. The provincial governors, however, had no reason for giving themselves royal airs and compelling the military officers of the imperial army posted in the province to do this sentry duty round their residence.

Third. No subject was to require any other person to touch the ground before him or perform the taslim and kurnish.

Taslim, or the peculiar mode of salutation followed in the Court of Delhi, was originated by Akbar. "The salutation called taslim consists in placing the back of the right hand on the ground, and then raising it gently till the person stands erect, when he puts the palm of his hand upon the crown of his head, which pleasing manner of saluting signifies that he is ready to give himself as an offering" (to the Emperor). Akbar tells us that he once made reverence to his father in this mode by accident, and Humayun was so pleased with it that he ordered it to be adopted as the regular mode of salutation at Court. (Ain. i. 158 ).

In other Muhammadan countries the mode of saluting the sovereign was different, viz., folding the arms over the breast and then bending the head, and it was the anxious concern of the Emperors of Delhi that foreign visitors (especially the Persian envoys) should salute them according to the Indian method and not after the fashion of their own countries.

While speaking of taslim, I may mention that in April 1670 Aurangzib forbade his Muslim courtiers to make taslim to each other. When they met together they were simply to cry out salam alekum (peace be on you!) and not to raise their hands to their heads. (Masir-iAlamgiri, 98, 272.)

Abul Fazl describes the kurnish thus:"His majesty has commanded the palm of the right hand to be placed upon the forehead and the head bent downwards. This mode of salutation, in the language of the present age, is called kurnish, and signifies that the saluter bas placed his head (which is the seat of the senses and of the mind ) into the hand of humility, giving it to the royal assembly as a present, and has made himself in obedience ready for any service that may be required of him." (Ain. i. 158. )

"Upon taking leave [ for one's post] or presentation [at Court ], or upon receiving a mansab, a jagir or a dress of honour, or a horse, the rule is to make three taslims; but only one on all other occasions, [as] when salaries are paid or presents made." (Ibid.)

Fourth. No subahdar was to compel musicians and singers to attend his court in regular chauki after the manner of the imperial darbar.

Akbar's practice in this matter is thus described :

"About three hours before daybreak, musicians of all races are introduced [ to the Emperor in the Hall of Private Audience. ] They recreate the assembly with music and songs, and religious strains; and when four gharis (i. e., an hour and a half) are left till morning His Majesty retires to his private apartments [ for sleep ]...

"Whenever his Majesty holds court [in public ...during the whole time, singers male and female are in waiting." ( Ain., i. 156 and 157.)

"The Court musicians are arranged in seven divisions, one for each day of the week. When His Majesty gives the order, they let the wine of harmony flow." (Ibid, 12.6)

Aurangzib forbade the practice and dismissed the court musicians on pension, retaining only the royal band or naubat. (11th year of his reign, 1667.)

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Fitth. Beating kettle-drums at time of setting out on a journey. The imperial practice in this respect is described by Manucci:

"At the time when he [ Aurangzib ] mounted the [portable ] throne [takht-i-rawan ] and issued from his tents, all the warlike instruments of music were sounded." (Storia, ii. 69. )*

When the Emperor took his seat in the Hall of Public Audience, a big drum (called damdamah, as distinct from the kettledrum or naqqara ) was beaten, to give notice to all men that the court had commenced. (Ain., i. 157.)

We learn from Hamiduddin's Ahkam that Shah Alam, when governor of Kabul, brought down upon himself the sharp reprimand of his father by ordering four kettledrums to be beaten when he was holding court. The Emperor wrote to him: "In the place of the four drums you should beat four tabors, because it is the prerogative of Emperors alone to beat kettledrums while holding court. When God gives you the throne you will enjov [these imperial rights.] Why this impatience ?" (Ahkam, 12.)

Late in the reign of Aurangzib the highest nobles began to be rewarded with the right of carrying a standard (alam) and kettledrum (naqqara) with themselves. But they were not to beat the kettledrum in the imperial camp or capital, nor when holding public darbar