The triangular form was also in use with the Egyptians. Athenæus mentions a certain musician called Alexander Alexandrinus, who was so admirable a performer on the trigonum, and gave such proof of his abilities at Rome, that he made the inhabitants μovooμavelv musically mad. Burney, who cites this, observes, that the performer being a native of Alexandria, as his name implies, makes it probable that it was an Egyptian instrument upon which he gained his high reputation at Rome. Burney also refers to the figure of the Theban harp, engraved in his work after a drawing from Bruce, in proof that the Egyptians had the triangular form of the instrument: but, unfortunately, the triangulation is one of the errors into which Bruce fell, the particular harp in view being really in the form of a bow. But the observation, although not the reference, is still applicable, as very distinct triangular instruments have been found represented in the paintings of the ancient Egyptians. Of these we have copied one of the most remarkable from Rosellini (3). It is found on a column of the temple of Dakkeh in Nubia, which is of the time of the Ptolemies. It is played on, with both hands, by one of those monsters which the Egyptian mind was so prolific in producing; and whether we consider its size, or its peculiar character and form, no instrument of the kind claims a more attentive consideration. Another stringed instrument of the Egyptians, also triangular, but very different in its form and principle from the preceding, is shewn in the other engraving (4). It is given by Rosellini, not from a painting but from a real instrument found in Egypt, and deposited in the museum at Florence. In this, the strings (originally ten in number, as appears from the pegs) form a triangle by their extension from the upper end of a piece inserted at right angles into a large harmonical body of wood, with which the strings are at the other extremity connected; as shewn in the above engraving. Portions of the strings still remain, and appear to have been formed from the intestines of animals. Remembering that Solomon obtained wood for his psalteries' by distant commerce, it is remarkable that the wood of this instrument is what Rosellini calls a mahogany (Swietana) from the East Indies; and which the Egyptians must have obtained through commercial channels. Coupling the delta form, which the old authorities assign to the NEBEL, with the number of the strings, Rosellini himself suggests that the present instrument has probably some resemblance to the by, the ten-stringed nebel' of the Hebrews. He

of course thinks that the asor and nebel are identical. Besides these, the Egyptians had one or two other stringed

of that people; and if any reliance may be placed on the conclusion that the nebel was of a triangular figure, it becomes interesting to discover that stringed instruments of this form were known to the ancient neighbours of the Jews, although we may be unable with any certainty to point out the particular instruments with which the Jews were acquainted. We say known to' because it may be that the instrument represented above (3) was not an Egyptian instrument, but is represented as that of some foreign people, and the grotesque figure given to the musician seems in favour of that conclusion. It is remarkable indeed that this instrument is in principle essentially the same, and has about the same number of strings as the harp in use at no remote period among the Romans. Of this instrument the annexed figures (5) are from a Persian MS. in the possession of the late Sir Gore Ouseley. The MS. from which the first was taken is about 360 years old; the second 420. It is remarkable that the Egyptian and Persian instruments of this class have generally one side of the triangle open: but one of our cuts (6) shews a very curious and beautiful instrument, which has a complete

PERSIAN HARPS.

instruments of a triangular form, distinct from those which we have represented, as well as from the harps and lyres

FIGURE supposed to represent KING DAVID.-Engraved in Donius, 'Lyra Barberina.'

attention, and the arched ones which we shall hereafter notice. As a suitable, though not, strictly speaking, an

authentic illustration, we have introduced (8, 9) a specimen of the lyre in the form of a perfect A, and struck with a sort of stylus or plectrum, which the ancient illuminators of psalters were accustomed to represent in the hands of David. Josephus says that the nebel was played upon with the hand, as is the case in the figure from Egypt and that from Herculaneum; but the plectrum may have been employed in some forms of the instruments. We do not know whether the nabel was the same instrument as the váẞλa or nablum of the Greeks and Romans: nor is this of much consequence, as we have little information concerning the latter. It seems however to have been highly appreciated. One proof of this has been given; and another has been adduced by Bochart, from the 'Adulterer' of Philemon, where, when one says that he is ignorant of the nabla, it is answered, 'Not know the nabla! then thou knowest nothing that is good.'

Having thus expounded that old opinion which assigns a triangular form to the nebel, we are now prepared to illustrate another view, which was suggested to us by the examination of some of the splendid works which, in the course of the present century, have made us so well acquainted with the public and private life of the ancient Egyptians, and which are calculated to afford us, in

INSTRUMENT and PLECTRUM of adjoining figure.

directly, much valuable information concerning the arts and implements of their neighbours, and more particularly of the Jews.

At p. 46. in the note on the kinnor, we noticed the tradition which ascribed the origin of stringed instruments of the lyre or harp class to an observation of the sound caused by the twanging of a bow. It might therefore be inferred that the earliest instruments founded on this idea would bear the form of a bow. Yet we have not met with any figures from Greek or Roman monuments which bear in their form any indication of such an origin, whilst all the harps of Egypt are more or less of the bow shape, so that the idea of such an origin would be suggested even were there no tradition to support it. This the reader will perceive by an examination of the harps in our present engravings, as well as by those contained in the group of musical performers at p. 35. Indeed we think that the engravings, taken together, will enable him to trace the progress of the idea from the simplest modification of the bow form to the large and magnificent bowed harp. The most simple application of this idea seems to

be that afforded by the instrument represented in the figure (9) hereto annexed; and which is given by Rosellini, as copied from a real instrument preserved in the Museum at Florence. It is constructed of the same materials as that triangular instrument represented in the fourth figure under Ps. xcii., and preserved in the same Museum. From the number of the pegs, the strings seem to have

been four in number; and which appear to have been conducted through a box or belly, framed at one extremity of the arc, in order to strengthen the sound. Fig. 10 exhibits another instrument of the same kind, with the four strings stretched over a box. This figure is further interesting, as shewing the manner in which the instrument was played, as carried upon the shoulder. In the two very interesting and highly enriched instruments played by the two central figures in the engraving given under Ps. xxxiii., the very simply arched figure is preserved, but, instead of a rather extraneous box, more of unity is obtained by an extensive hollow, gradually widening, being formed between the outer and inner surfaces of the arched frame. It is also large, and is not portable while played, but rests rather awkwardly upon the ground, without any base for its support. Fig. 11 exhibits another smaller instrument of this description; and fig. 4 shews the largest of this class, and which has the same number of strings that Josephus gives to the Hebrew nabel. Our remaining small cuts exhibit instruments also of the arc form, but in which the arc is more bent. In all these the hollow frame is much enlarged towards the lower end, and its bend there sometimes furnishes a sort of base, on which the instrument may be more conveniently poised than those last noticed. None of them seem to be portable; and as they are short, they are either placed on a stand, or the player sits on the ground, on which the instrument is rested. One of these cuts (fig. 15) is particularly interesting, as from the fine manner in which the player's head is thrown back, with the mouth open, he appears to be singing, proving that the performer sometimes accompanied the instrument with his voice.

Our large cut (16) exhibits what seems the most perfect and finished forms to which the Egyptian harp ultimately arrived. It is from a painting on the walls of what, on account of this and another similar representation, is called the Harp Tomb,' at Thebes. Bruce was the first to describe these representations, in a letter to Dr. Burney, which the latter printed in his History of Music. He also gave a drawing, engraved in that work, which appears to have been intended to represent the harp of our engraving. It is however so different in form and principle, though some resemblance is observable, that, as Browne suspected, it was probably finished from recollection. Denon afterwards gave, in a rude sketch, a more correct representation, preserving the arc form which Bruce had destroyed. Then came the great French work on Egypt, which gave the more finished engraving from which ours is copied; and also of the other, which is so similar that we have not thought it necessary to insert it. We are aware that the accuracy of even these representations has been strongly questioned by Dr. Richardson and others; but, so far as we can ascertain, the objections refer chiefly to colouring, and to some small matters of detail, which do not affect the general accuracy, particularly in a wood engraving. The only serious error seems to be, that, according to Rosellini, the second harp contains thirteen strings, not eighteen as stated by Bruce, nor twenty-one as in the French work. We need not expatiate on the form of the harp, which the engraving so adequately represents. But we will quote a few of the observations of Bruce, whose written account is much better than his figure, and is indeed correct, except as to his fundamental error in the form of the harp and the number of the strings. After describing correctly the figure of the player, he says, To guess by the detail of the figure, the painter should have had about the same degree of merit with a good sign painter in Europe; yet he has represented the action of the musician in a manner never to be mistaken. His left (right) hand seems employed in the upper part of the instrument among the notes in alto, as if in arpeggio; while stooping forwards, he seems with his right (left) hand to be beginning with the lowest string, and promising to ascend with the most rapid execution; this action, so obviously rendered by an indifferent artist, shews that it was a common one in his time; or, in other words, that great hands were then frequent, and consequently that

Fig. 13.

music was well understood and diligently followed. If we allow the performer's stature to be about five feet ten inches, then we may compute the harp, in its extreme length, to be somewhat less than six feet and a half. It seems to support itself in equilibrio on its foot, or base, and needs only the player's guidance to keep it steady. It has thirteen (eleven) strings, and the length of these, with the force and liberty with which they are treated, shew that they are made in a very different manner from those of the lyre.' He observes, that the absence of a forepiece, opposed to the longest string, must have improved its tone; but at the same time must have rendered the instrument itself weaker, and more liable to accidents, if carriage had not been so convenient in Egypt. He adds, 'Besides that the whole principles upon which the harp is constructed are rational and ingenious, the ornamental parts are likewise executed in the very best manner; the bottom and sides of the frame seem to be fineered, or inlaid, probably with ivory, tortoiseshell, and motherof-pearl; the ordinary produce of the neighbouring seas and deserts. It would be even now impossible to furnish an instrument with more taste and elegance.' Dr. Burney himself has some interesting remarks on the same subject (vol. i. p. 224, et seq.), liable however to the correction

Fig. 15. necessary from his having been in some respects misled by Bruce's drawing.

When, some years after his letter to Dr. Burney, Bruce published his own work, he gave a representation of the second harp, which, although considerably improved,' is far more faithfully copied than the other. With reference to both he says, 'These harps, in my opinion, overturn all the accounts hitherto given of the earliest state of music and musical instruments in the East; and are altogether, in their form, ornaments, and compass, an incontestable proof, stronger than a thousand Greek quotations, that geometry, drawing, mechanics, and music, were at the greatest perfection when this instrument was made; and that the period from which we date the invention of these arts was only the beginning of the æra of their restoration. This was the sentiment of Solomon, a writer who lived about the time when these harps were painted. "Is there," says Solomon, "any thing whereof it may be said, See, this is new! It hath been already of old time which was before us.""

Here then we observe real harps-the only ones of which antiquity has left any trace, and differing very considerably from any of those in use among ourselves. Such harps being in use among the Egyptians, the proba

bility will scarcely be disputed that they were known also to the Jews; and then when we reflect that the nebel appears to have been a large stringed instrument of the harp kind, it will appear as good a probability as can be obtained that the name is applicable to some such instruments as our present cuts exhibit. However, we are not solicitous to contend that this harp must certainly have been the nebel of the Hebrews. But if it be allowed that they were acquainted with such an instrument, we will not contend that it might not be denoted by some other undetermined name of stringed instruments, such as the instrument of ten strings, the harp of solemn sound,' or 'the pleasant harp,' rather than that of the nebel; and shall therefore not object to be understood as introducing, under a name not distinctly appropriated, an instrument which may possibly not have been the nebel of the Hebrews, but which, by whatever of the undetermined names they called it, could scarcely fail to have been known to them. It may also be observed, that the two great harps, having, respectively, eleven and thirteen strings, have only one less and one more than the twelve which Josephus assigns to the nebel. Several of the smaller ones also offer such a number of strings as would alone suffice to suggest an approximation to the instrument in question. It is also remarkable that whereas the nabel is so mentioned in Scripture as to shew that it always or generally formed part of a band of instruments, so the Egyptian harp is seen to have been usually played in concert with other instruments. Sometimes, however, it was played alone, or as an accompaniment to the voice, and a band of seven or more choristers frequently sing to it a favourite air, beating time with their hands between each stanza.

6

The harp with a solemn sound.'-The word translated 'solemn sound' is in higgaion, which occurs untranslated in Ps. ix. 17; and in xix. 14, is rendered 'meditation.' Some think that it means a musical instrument; and if so, it would doubtless denote a species of harp or lyre of peculiarly grave tone: others refer it not to any

6

distinct instrument, but to the modulation of the common kinnor, as, In a soft whisper upon the harp' (Mudge): Upon the murmuring harp' (Parkhurst): With the sweet melody of the harp' (Boothroyd): and see the marginal reading. The Septuagint renders it by song, "With a song upon the cithara; and so the Vulgate, followed by Waterland and others, and approved by Gesenius. All these modifications of meaning are derivable from the primary sense in nahagah, to meditate,' or, 'to speak' with reflection and we should certainly prefer, in the present text, to understand it as an epithet applied to the notes of the kinnor, rather than as describing a particular instrument.

12. The righteous shall flourish like the palm-tree.-The palm was anciently supposed to rise under a weight, and to thrive in proportion to its being depressed. It was hence that the name of Phoenix was given to the tree by the Phoenicians. In this there is probably a further allusion than may at first view appear; for the ancients had an opinion that the palm was immortal; or, at least, that if it did die, it recovered, and obtained a second life by renewal.

13. Shall flourish in the courts of our God.'-We should not wonder if there were here an allusion to the actual presence of palm-trees, if not cedars, in the courts of houses. Of domesticated cedars we cannot speak: but it is quite usual for trees to be planted in the courts both of religious buildings and domestic habitations in the East; and while residing in the countries of the palm (Turkish Arabia for instance) we observed that this tree was invariably employed for the purpose. It is equally recommended to this preference by the elegance of its form, the excellence of its fruit, and the broken shade which its spreading head diffuses over the court in which it is placed.

14. They shall still bring forth fruit in old age.'-The literal reference is evidently to the palm-tree, which is very long lived for a fruit-tree, and continues in fertility and vigour at an age far more than equivalent to the ex

treme old age of man. The palm-tree reaches its full maturity in about thirty years (but bears fruit much earlier); and continues in full productiveness and perfect beauty for about seventy years longer. After this it begins gradually to decline, and perishes towards the latter end of its second century. This may serve as a general statement; but it is liable to large exceptions. Trees far more than two centuries old have been known; and perhaps the best general rule is afforded by the popular expression of the Arabs, which states that, after it has attained maturity, it remains in undiminished vigour during three human generations. The fruit is produced in clusters, which grow from the trunk of the tree, between the branches, or rather, leaves. The form of these clusters is best shewn in our engraving. In a good tree, and productive season, there may be from fifteen to twenty of these clusters, each weighing about as many pounds; but this differs with circumstances, and in the different varieties, of which there are many. The same variation extends to the size and quality of the fruit itself. When perfectly ripe, the most common sort is soft and pulpy, and very sweet, without any acidity. But those that are intended to be dried are

not allowed to attain their softest condition. Great quantities are dried, and are then very hard, and have a shrunk and shrivelled appearance. They are then of great service as a standing article of food; and, from their hardness and portability, are very valuable to persons on a journey. The date has an exceedingly hard and solid kernel; but, like every other part of this precious tree, this is valuable, forming a most nourishing and acceptable food to camels and other cattle, when ground or softened by being soaked for two or three days in water. In the date countries, so much of man's subsistence depends upon this fruit, that the season of gathering is watched for with all the anxiety, and attended with all the joy, of the harvest or the vintage of other lands. After this it will be perceived that palm-trees must form a valuable property, and confer importance on their owners: so much is this the case, that there is an Arabic proverb reflecting on the custom for persons, who affect consequence to which they have no claim, to pretend that the dates they consume are produced by trees of their own. See Burckhardt's Arabic Proverbs, No. 126.