perpetuity of the race. A state of solitude is a state in which no benefit can be derived by the individual from benevolence, beneficence, morals, and manners, as there can be no improvement in manners without social intercourse. Man was made for society. There is no place where the advice, counsel, aid, physical power, wealth, or even poverty, is not necessary to his fellow-man. Are the poor necessary to the rich?

They are, for in refined civil society there are different ascending ranks or castes. The rich employ the poor, and the poor furnish the means of subsistence to the rich. The artisan aids the yeoman; the farmer supplies food for the mechanic; the learned aid the unlearned. The benefits are mutual, and are productive of happiness. Can there be any exercise of the cardinal virtues out of society?

There cannot; they indeed have their origin in civil society.

Which are the cardinal virtues ?

Justice, prudence, temperance, and fortitude, are those named by the ancients. Justice is the highest virtue in its exercise, and supports the highest honor of civil society. A band of robbers between themselves must exercise this virtue, or they would not be kept together. The division of the plunder taken from others must be according to the principles of justice, or death or expulsion would be the consequence of a violation of it. The more complete the power of justice, the more refined the state of society. Justice is the opposite of extortion. It prevents the powerful from trampling on the feeble: the cunning from defrauding the weak. It punishes those who violate the law; protects all in their rights of person,

property, and liberty. The application of justice may be wrong in this way the aphorism originated that the most rigid justice is the highest injustice. It is the highest attribute of Deity.

From what source do goodness and liberality flow? From the association of men in society.

What is liberality?

In sentiment it is the giving to others their due share of credit; not proscribing for opinion's sake; good feeling to those of different views and sentiments; munificence; a donation; the giving what is due.

What is goodness?

In a moral sense, it is the absence of evil in thought, word, or deed: It is active virtue; Christian duty, love of order; the performance of all incumbent duties, both public and private.

What is temperance?

It is the abstaining from excess in all things. It is the pursuit of a middle course in all the duties which appertain to society. Abstinence from the use of things injurious, unnecessary, and deleterious, is in these things temperance. The smallest use of any thing noxious or poisonous, unless as a remedy, is excess, and therefore to cease to use is the only temperance admissible.

What should be the general pursuit of all in society?

That which is useful, and to avoid the reverse.

Can that which is dishonest ever be useful?

So

It cannot. To extort from another is dishonest. ciety is based upon integrity; and to cheat, defraud, or rob another, is removing its foundation. Any thing which injures our fellow, which furnishes us benefit or gain at his expense, is dishonest.

It is a violation of law, which is a violation of good morals. Two States have tried the Bentham doctrine, and been forced, after a very short experiment, to resort to usury laws again. Old Cato said, a usurer ought to suffer death.

Is avarice consistent with good morals?

It is an inordinate desire of gain or wealth, which is the root of all evil. There is nothing so contracted and little as the love of riches for riches' sake.

OF GOVERNMENT.

What is government?

It is the power to control the members of the body politic in those things which relate to their acts as citizens and subjects.

In what is government founded?

It is founded in wisdom, goodness, and power. These faculties are attributes of the Deity. Society, which is essential to government, had its inception in the fears and wants of those associated.

What is the object of all government?

It is the protection of life, liberty, and property. In a state of nature, no laws are necessary, and no govern ment to make and execute them.

How many kinds of government are there?

There are four kinds. The first is a simple democracy: the sovereign power is lodged in an aggregate assembly, consisting of all the members of the community.

What is that government called which is lodged in select members of the community?

It is called an aristocracy, or oligarchy.

If lodged in the hands of a single individual, what is it called?

A monarchy.

What is a government of a mixed form called, which is peculiar to modern times?

It is called a democratic republic.

How does it differ from ancient republics?

It is representative.

What, when it is composed of a number of separate governments held together by written constitution or compact?

It is called a federal republic. The United States is

one.

What are the State governments specimens of?

They are specimens of a mixed form of government. What is meant by sovereign power?

It is that power which makes laws.

Where does the right of making laws exist in a democracy ?

In the whole body of freemen or people.

Where is goodness of intention most generally found? In a democracy, though sometimes foolish, patriotism and public spirit are generally found.

Where does most wisdom exist?

In aristocracy or oligarchy: here the wisest and oldest citizens of the state are placed: there is less honesty than in a democracy, and not as much strength as in a monarchy.

Which form of government is most powerful?

A monarchy. Here are combined the legislative and executive in one man.

What government is best calculated to direct the ends

of the law?

Democracies.

What, to invent the means by which the ends may be obtained?

Aristocracies.

What government is best to carry the ends into execution?

A monarchy.

What government is best according to Cicero ?

One in which a democracy, aristocracy, and monarchy are united.

In what governments are the notions of Cicero adopted? In that of Great Britain, particularly, and to a certain extent in the United States.

What form of government is of modern origin?
A representative democracy or republic.

Where is the most perfect form of this government to be found?

In the United States of America. The word federal was one of the designations of the great political parties after the constitution was adopted.

How many States originally formed this leagued republic?

Thirteen minor republics.

How many States now compose this confederacy?
Thirty-one.

What are the names of the New England States? Rhode Island, Connecticut, Massachusetts, Vermont, New Hampshire, and Maine.

What are the names of the other twenty-five States? New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland,