above the level of the strand. It consists of many thousand pillars, mostly in a vertical position, some of them high, others broken; and for a considerable space, of an equal height, so as to form a pavement. They are closely compacted together; though the form is various, most of them are pentagonal. The pillars are rarely composed of one entire piece, but mostly consist of short or long joints, either plane, or concave, corresponding with the convex. The pillars are from 15 to 25 inches in diameter

Bogs.

A very mistaken notion prevails, that the bogs of Ireland are found only in low situations, and people in general have thence been led to compare them to the marshy fens of Norfolk, Cambridgeshire, Lincolnshire, and Yorkshire, in which so much has been done during the course of the last thirty years. The bogs of Ireland, indeed, are widely different in many respects from the fens of England.

The soil of English marshes "is a black spongy moor of rotten vegetable matter," but the bogs of Ireland "consist of inert vegetable matter, covered more or less with unproductive vegetables, and containing a large quantity of stagnant water." The difference between these soils is, that the rotten vegetable matter of the one produces unrivalled crops of grass, corn, &c. while the inert vegetable matter of the other throws out no kind of plant useful to man.

The countess of Moira mentions that a human body was found under moss eleven feel deep, on the estate of her husband. The body was completely clothed in garments made of hair, which were fresh and no way impaired; and though hairy vestments evidently point to a period extremely remote, before the introduction of sheep and the use of wool, yet the body and the clothes were no way impaired.

According to a report made to parliament by a board of gentlemen appointed to examine the bogs in Ireland, it is estimated that they cover at least one million of acres; but as mountain bog, and bog under five hundred acres, are excluded from the computation, the surface covered by them is, perhaps, much greater. The commissioners conclude that six-sevenths of the bogs of Ireland occupy a portion of the Island somewhat greater than one-fourth of its whole superficial extent, included between a line drawn from Wicklow Head to Galway, and another drawn from Howth Head to Sligo, resembling in form a broad belt, stretched across the centre of the country, with its narrowest end nearer to the capital, and gradually extending in breadth as it approaches to the western ocean. This district includes a number of bogs, called in general the "Bog of Allen," which is not one continued morass of immense extent, but consists of a number of bogs adjacent to each other.

The origin of these masses of inert vegetable matter has given rise to many learned antiquarian and philosophical discussions, and notwithstanding all the modern discoveries, it appears to me to be still undetermined when or by what means they were formed. They are not primitive or original masses of earth, because they are found chiefly in northern countries, and always cover timber, various utensils, and coins, the two latter of which are certain indications of the hand of man, previous to their existence. Fossil timber, in great quantities, is dug up from many of the bogs in Ireland. From this circumstance, many have been induced to believe, that bogs originate from decayed forests, which by some accident or convulsion of nature, ave been overturned and buried.

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ASIA.

Asia is bounded on the N. by the Arctic or Frozen ocean; E. by the Pacific ocean; South by the Indian ocean, and W. by Africa, the Mediterranean sea and Europe. It extends from 2° to 77° N. lat. and from 26° to 190° E. lon. The area is estimated by Hassel at 16,728,000 square miles.

TURKEY IN ASIA.

Turkey in Asia is bounded N. by the sea of Marmora, the Black sea and Russia; E. by Persia; S. by Arabia, and W. by the Mediterranean and the Archipelago. It extends from 30° to 42° N. lat. and from 26° to 49° E. lon. The area is estimated at about 500,000 square miles, without including the Syrian desert. The population is estimated by Hassel at 12,000,000, of which number one half are Turks, and the rest Greeks, Armenians, Arabs, Jews, Curds, Druses, &c.

General Character of the Turks.

The Turks are generally well made and robust men when young their complexions are fair, and their faces handsome; their hair and eyes are black, or dark brown. The women, during their youth, are generally handsome, but they look old at thirty. In their demeanour, the Turks are hypocondriac, grave, sedate, and passive; in matters of religion, tenacious, superstitious, and morose.

The morals of the Asiatic Turks are much better than those of the European. They are hospitable to strangers, and the vices of avarice and inhumanity reign chiefly among their great men. Their charity and public spirit is most conspicuous in their building caravanseras, or places of entertainment, on roads that are destitute of accommodation for the refreshment of poor pilgrims or travellers. With the same laudable view, they search out the best springs, and dig wells, which in those countries are of the utmost importance to weary travellers. The Turks sit cross-legged, not only at their meals, but in company. Their ideas are few and simple, seldom reaching without the walls of their own houses, where they sit conversing with the women, drinking coffee, smoking tobacco, or chewing opium. They are perfect strangers to wit and agreeable conversation. They have few printed books, and seldom read any other than the Koran, and the comments upon it.

Of their Military Character, &c.

The Turks possess a considerable share of personal courage; and it is to be regretted, that this quality is rendered almost useless, and even pernicious, by the superstition into which they are plunged, as well as by the radical vices of their government. They are hardy. temperate, patient under afflictions, and upright in their dealings. Having been accustomed from an early age to an abstemious mode of living, and inured to hardships, those of the inferior classes are well calculated for a military life.

Their customary diet consists of a small portion of bread or biscuit, with a scanty allowance of cheese, onions, olives, and oil, when

188

Of their Marriages and Funerals.

ever either or any of these articles can be procured. They seldom indulge in animal food, and in such cases they are very fond of a pilaw, consisting of strong gravy, in which rice is stewed. This luxury, however, but seldom falls to the lot of the military, who have recourse to other and less costly gratifications, the principal of which are coffee and tobacco. The former they drink in as strong an infusion as possible, and to the use of the latter they are so much addic ted, that the pipe is the inseparable companion of many of the women even among the lower ranks of the Turks.

Wine being prohibited by the Koran, the usual beverage of every class of Mussulmen is water; but whenever they can prevail on themselves to overcome their religious scruples so far as to indulge in the use of wine or spirits, they swallow them so copiously, and with such eagerness, that in the intoxication which follows, they become noisy and riotous in the extreme.

The game of chess, which is not prohibited like gambling with cards or dice, is one of the amusements of the camp, as well as in the towns. They are likewise very fond of singing, which is generally performed in a harsh and discordant tone, without any modulation of voice. Their active diversions consist in shooting at a mark, at which they are very expert. Some of their great men are fond of hunting, and take the field with numerous equipages, which are joined by their inferiors; that is, however, often done for political purposes, that they may know the strength of their dependents.

In addition to his scanty allowance of bread, the Turkish soldier is allowed from a penny to two-pence a day, with which he supplies himself with tobacco, coffee, onions, olives, &c. When sick, he has little to expect from medical skill or attendance, and places as small a dependence on the administration of the necessary remedies, which are rarely supplied to combat his disease.

In the camp, as in in every other situation, the Turks attend regularly to their prayers five times in the course of the day: at sun-rise : at nine in the morning; at noon; at four in the afternoon; and at the setting-sun. Before each prayer they invariably wash their feet, hands, and face, and having spread their little carpet in the tent, make their prostrations, and go through their devotional exercises. After their second prayer, they breakfast, and delay their dinner until the last, or sun-set prayer has been repeated. These are the only meals of the lower classes of the Turks.

Of their Marriages and Funerals.

Marriages in this country are chiefly negotiated by the women. When the terms are agreed on, the bridegroom pays down a sum of money, a license is taken out from the proper magistrate, and the parties are married. The wedding is celebrated, as in other nations, with mirth and jollity; and the money is generally employed in furnishing the house of the young couple. They are not allowed by their law more than four wives, but the wealthy keep a seraglio of

women.

The burials of the Turks are decent. The corpse is attended by the relations, chanting passages from the Koran, and after being deposited in a mosque or temple, they are buried in a field by the inman or priest, who pronounces a funeral sermon at the time of inter÷ ment,

Arz-Roum in Turkey.

189

Of the Turkomans, the Kurdi, the Armenians, the Druzes, and

other tribes.

In general, the most striking feature of manners and customs in the Turkish empire is, that half the people may be considered as somewhat civilized, while the other half are pastoral wanderers, ranging over extensive wastes. This laxity of government renders travelling in Turkey or Asia Minor very unsafe, and has proved a great impediment to any exact geographical knowledge of these regions. Under

a better government, the wandering herds of Turkomans and Kurds would be expelled, and industry and the arts might again visit this territory.

In the summer the Kurds pass from Monsoul to the sources of the Euphrates, and they are never punished either for robbery or murder. They are a pastoral people, conducting their herds from one country to another, as far west as Tokat, where the hordes of Turkomans be gin to appear. These last speak the same language as the Turks, but their mode of life is nearly similar to that of the wandering Arabs. Their property consists in sheep, with some goats, camels, and buffaloes.

The Armenians, though they possess the christian faith, retain many singular manners and customs; but they are a sensible and polite people, and the chief conductors of the Levant trade, for which busi ness they are singularly well qualified by frugality and enterprize. The Armenian merchants are settled in all parts of the east, even into the uttermost parts of Bengal, and are universally esteemed for great punctuality, integrity and wealth.

are,

The Druzes, a remarkable people of Syria, affect the exterior appearance of Mahometans, yet they have in reality no religion at all; there however, among these, sects who do not agree in what they disbe lieve. According to Volney, they practise neither circumcision, prayers, nor fastings; they neither observe festivals, nor regard prohibitions. They drink wine, eat pork, and allow marriage between almost the nearest relations. Near Antioch, there is said to be a sect which professes some of the most dissolute tenets of Paganism.

In the northern parts of Asiatic Turkey, there are many tribes who have adopted singular manners and customs. Six or seven languages are spoken in the country between the Black Sea and the Caspian. The Abkhas are, by the Circassians, called the people beyond the mountains: they retain some traces of corrupted christianity. The Circassians occupy an extensive territory, part of which is now subject to Russia. Their princes cannot possess lands; the nobles are chosen from the vassals, or third class. Public measures are proposed by the prince, and debated by the nobles and deputies of the people, on a spot destined for this purpose, near the royal residence. The agriculture of the Circassians barely suffices for their own consumption; but they export sheep and horses, and sell the slaves taken in their predatory excursions. The beauty of the Circassian women has been long celebrated, an idea of which may be had from what follows.

Mr. Morier, the latest traveller in these countries, gives the following interesting particulars :

We arrived, says he, at Arz-roum, after riding fifteen miles on a bearing of W. over a chalky road. The city presents itself in a

* See Appendix, page 16. P.

very picturesque manner; its old minarets and decayed turrets rising abruptly to the view. Our baggage was carried to the customhouse, notwithstanding all our remonstrances and claims of privilege. The caution of the Turks, though in this instance unnecessary, was not unjustifiable for a former Persian embassador had concealed merchants in his suite, who, under his name, passed large quantities of fine goods.

Arz-roum is built on a rising ground; on the highest part is the castle, surrounded by a double wall of stone, which is chequered at the top by embrasures, and strengthened here and there by projec tions, in the fashion of bastions, with openings fit for the reception of cannon. It has four gates, which are covered with plates of iron. The whole is well built, and to me does not appear the work of Mussulmans. A ditch runs by it to the S. W.; near it is a tannery; and further on is a row of blacksmiths' forges, which seemed in good employ. In this direction (N. E. of the town) is the custom-house, a spacious building. The pacha's residence has a large gate opening into a court yard. The houses are in general built of stone, with rafters of wood, and terraced. Grass grows on their tops, and sheep and calves feed there; so that, when seen from an eminence, the roofs of the houses can hardly be distinguished from the plain at their foundation. I walked through most of the bazars; few are domed, the rest are terraced, like the dwellings, but affording a common road for foot-passengers, who ascend by a public flight of steps. Wherever a street intervenes, a bridge is thrown over, and the line continues uninterrupted. The shops in the bazars are well stocked, and the place exhibits an appearance of much industry. The streets are mostly paved; but, as in Turkey, in that manner which is more cal. culated to break the passenger's neck than to ease his feet. There are sixteen baths, and one hundred mosques; several of the latter are creditable buildings, the domes of which are covered with lead, and ornamented with gilt balls and crescents.

This is the present state of Arz-roum: its remains prove that it must have been still more considerable. Every thing attests the antiquity of the place; the inhabitants indeed date the foundation from the time of Noah, and very zealousy swear that some of their present structures were cotemporary with the patriarch; with less haz ard of truth, or rather with much appearance of probability, they aver that others were the work of the Giaours or Infidels. One in particular is attributed to the latter origin; it consists of an arched gateway, curiously worked, all in strong stone, situated N. W. in the castle, and close to a decayed minaret of ancient structure. Yet many of the older fabrics appear, by the true moresque arch, to be certainly of saracenic origin; and many of the remains of mosques resemble those buildings in Persia, with curious bricks, and lacquered tiles, which were raised in the first ages of Mahomedanism. In all those at Arz-roum, I observed a round tower, with a very shelving roof, covered all over with bricks. There are still erect several minarets, obviously works of the early Mussulmans. Near the eastern gate of the castle are two of brick and tile, and a gate (with a saracenic arch and a cufic inscription) and many strong stone buildings around the remains of the fine portico of a mosque. To the east of the town is an old tower of brick, the highest building in Arzroum, which is used as a look out-house, and serves as the tower of the Janizaries in Constantinople, or that of Galata. There is a clock at the summit, which strikes the hour with sufficient regularity.