Tabasheer In two or three of the joints a small round hole was found 11 Taber. at top and bottom, which feemed to have been perforated by fome infect. nacle. 1 Garzius informs us, that it is not found in all bamboos, nor in all the branches indifcriminately, but only in those growing about Bifnagur, Batecala, and one part of the Malabar coaft. Dr Ruffel was informed by a letter from a medical gentleman attending the embaffy to the Nizam, that though tabasheer bears a high price at Hydrabad, it is never brought thither from Bifnagur; and that some of what is fold in the markets comes from the pafs of Atcour in Canoul; and fome from Emǹabad, at the diftance of about 80 miles to the north weft; but that the most part comes from Mafulipatam. That fold in the markets is of two kinds; one the rate of a rupee per dram, but the other only half that price; the latter, however, is fuppofed to be factitious, and made up moftly of burnt teeth and bones. Dr Ruffel himself also, is perfuaded that the tabafheer met with in commerce is greatly adulterated. The above mentioned gentleman likewife informed the doctor that tabafheer was produced in great quantities at Sylhat, where it is fold by the pound, from one rupee to one and an halt; forming a confiderable article of trade from Bengal to Perfia and Arabia. There is, however, a third kind, much fu perior to either of the two above described; differing not only in its fuperior whitenefs, but likewife in being much lefs mixed with heterogeneous particles; being likewife much harder, heavier, and fcarcely in any degree friable by the finger. From the experiments of Dr Ruffel, it appears that the tabasheer is the juice of the bamboo thickened and hardened to a certain degree. Its chemical qualities, as far as we have heard, have not yet been minutely examined. The follow ing oblervations on its medical effects were taken from a Perfian work, intitled the "Tofut ul Monein of Mahommed Monein Hofeiny," by Mr Williams, a furgeon in the fervice of the East India company. The tabasheer puts a stop to bilious vomitings and to the bloody flux. It is alfo of fervice in cafes of palpitation of the heart, in faintings, and for ftrengthening those members of the body that are weakened by heat. It is ufeful alfo for the piles, and for acute or burning fevers, and for puftules in the mouth (thrufh); and, given with oxymel, is of fervice against reftleffness, melancholy, and hypochondriacal affections. The habitual internal ufe of it is prejudicial to the virile powers. It is also said to be prejudicial to the lungs. Its correctives are the gum of the pine and honey. The dofe of it is to the weight of two d'herems, or seven mafhás. TABBY, in commerce, a kind of rich filk which has undergone the operation of tabbying. TABBYING, the paffing a filk or ftuff under a calendar, the rolls of which are made of iron or copper variously engraven, which bearing unequally on the tuf renders the furface thereof unequal, fo as to reflect the rays of light differently, making the reprefentation of waves thereon. TABELLIQ, in the Roman law, an officer or fcrivener, much the fame with our notaries-public, who are often called tabelliones. TABERNACLE, among the Hebrews, a kind of building, in the form of a tent, fet up, by exprefs command of God, for the performance of religious worship, facrifices, &c. during the journeying of the Ifraelites in the wildernefs: and, after their fettlement in the land of Canaan, made ufe of for the fame purpose till the building of the temple of Jerufalem. It was divided into two parts; the one covered, and properly called the tabernacle; and the other open, called the court. The curtains which covered the tabernacle were made of linen, of feveral colours, embroidered. There were 11 Table. ten curtains, twenty eight cubits long and four in breadth. Tabernæ Five curtains faftened together made up two coverings, which covered up all the tabernacle. Over these there were two other coverings; the one of goat's hair, the other of sheep's fkins. The holy of holies was parted from the rest of the tabernacle by a curtain made fast to four pillars, standing ten cubits from the end. The length of the whole taber nacle was 32 cubits, that is, about 50 feet; and the breadth 12 cubits, or 19 feet. The court was a spot of ground 100 cubits long, and 50 in breadth, enclofed by 20 columns, each 20 cubits high and 10 in breadth, covered with filver,. and ftanding on copper bafes, five cubits distant from one another; between which there were curtains drawn, and faftened with hooks. At the east end was an entrance, 20 cubits wide, covered with a curtain hanging loose. Feast of TABERNACLES, a folemn feftival of the Hebrews, obferved after harvest, on the 15th day of the month Tifri, inftituted to commemorate the goodness of God, who protected the Ifraelites in the wilderness, and made them dwell in booths, when they came out of Egypt. On the first day of the feast, they began to erect booths of the boughs of trees, and in these they were obliged to continue feven days. The booths were placed in the open air, and were not to be covered with cloths, nor made too close by the thickness of the boughs; but fo loofe that the fun and the stars might be seen, and the rain defcend through them. For further particulars of the celebration of this feftival, fee Levit. ch. xxiii. TABERNÆ (and geog.) See TRES Taberna. TABERNÆMONTAÑA, in botany: A genus of plants belonging to the class of pentandria, and order of monogynia; and in the natural fyftem arranged under the 30th order, Contorta. There are two horizontal follioles, and the feeds are immerfed in pulp. There are eight species, all of foreign growth. TABLE, a moveable piece of furniture, ufually made of wood or ftone, and fupported on pillars or the like, for the commodious reception of things placed thereon. TABLE is alfo ufed for the fare or entertainment fer ved up. TABLE, in mathematics, fyftems of numbers calculated to be ready at hand for the expediting aftronomical, geometrical. and other operations. TABLE-Book. See WRITING.. TABLE-Mountain, a mountain of Africa, being the moft wefterly cape or promontory in that part of the world, and near the Cape of Good Hope. The bay which is formed. thereby is called the Table-bay. Laws of the Twelve TABLES, were the firft fet of laws of the Romans; thus called either because the Romans then wrote with a ftyle on thin wooden tablets covered with wax; or rather, because they were engraved on tables or plates of copper, to be expofed in the molt. noted part of the public forum. After the expulfion of the kings, as the Romans. were then without any fixed or certain fyftem of law, at leaft had none. ample enough to take in the various cafes that might fall between particular persons, it was refolved to adopt the best and wifelt laws of the Greeks. One Hermodorus was firft appointed to tranflate them, and the decemviri afterwards compiled and reduced them into teñ tables. After a world of care and application, they were at length enacted and confirmed by the fenate and an affem, bly of the people, in the year of Rome 303. The following year they found fomething wanting therein, which they supplied from the laws of the former kings of Rome, and from ecrtain customs which long use had authorifed: all thefe being engraven on two other tables, made the law. of the twelve tables, fo famous in the Roman jurifpru dence, the fource and foundation of the civil or Roman law. I TABLES Taboo Tacainahaca. Mariti's Travels, vol. ii. TAC TABOO, a word ufed by the South Sea iflanders, near- TABOR, a mountain of Galilee, about 12 miles from miles in circumference. The fituation of Mount Tabor is most delightful. Rifing It was upon this enchanting mount that the apoftle Pe. Flavian Jofephus, governor of Galilee, caufed the fummit of this mountain, for the space of two miles and a half, to be furrounded with walls. The inhabitants of Tabor long braved the power of the Roman armies; but being deprived of water in confequence of the great heats, they were for ced to surrender at difcretion to Placidus, the general of Vefpafian. Several churches were built upon this mountain by St Helen, who founded here alfo fome monafteries. Of the two most remarkable, one was dedicated to Mofes, and inhabited by Cenobites of the order of St Benedict, who followed the Latin rites: the other was dedicated to the prophet Elias by monks of the order of St Bafil, attached to the Greek rites. The kings of Hungary erected here also a pretty fpacious convent for fome monks belonging to that nation, of the order of St Paul the first hermit. Tabor was alfo the feat of a bishop, dependant on the patriarchate of Jerufalem. TAC Tacitus, perly called a gum in the shops. It exudes from a fpecies Tacca, TACCA, in botany: A genus of plants belonging to TACITUS (Caius Cornelius), a celebrated Roman hi- The time of his death is not mentioned by any ancient 1 It is remarkable, that princes and politicians have always Biograpliheld the works of Tacitus in the higheft efteem; which ca Diction~When Godfrey of Bouillon feized on this mountain, he look as if they either found their account in reading them, **** repaired the ancient churches, which were beginning to fall or were pleased to find courts, and the people who live in into ruins. Under Baldwin I. in 1113, the Saracen troops them, fo exactly described after the life as they are in his retook Tabor; and their fanguinary fury gained as many writings. Part of what is extant was found in Germany victories as there were. priefts and Cenobites. This moun- by a receiver of Pope Leo X. and published by Beroaldus tain again fell into the hands of the Chriftians; but the Ca- at Rome in 1515. at Rome in 1515. Leo was fo much charmed with Tatholic Itandard was not long difplayed on it. Saladin citus, that he gave the receiver a reward of 500 crowns; pulled it down the year. following, and deftroyed all the and promised not only indulgences, but money also and ho churches. The Chriftians retook it once mole in 1253; nour, to any one who fhould find the other part; which it and their zeal made them rebuild all the facred places. At is faid was afterwards brought to him. Pope Paul III. this time Rome being accustomed to give away empires, as Muretus relates, wore out his Tacitus by much reading Pope Alexander IV. granted Tabor to the Templars, who it; and Cofmo de Medicis, who was the first great duke of fortified it again. At length, in the courfe of the year Tufcany, and formed for governing, accounted the reading 1290, the faltan of Egypt deftroyed and laid wafte the of him his greatest pleasure. Muretus adds, that feveral buildings of this mountain, which could never be repaired princes, and privy-counsellors to princes, read him with afterwards; so that at prefent it is uninhabited. great application, and regarded him as a fort of oracle in politics. A certain author relates, that Queen Christina of TACAMAHACA, in pharmacy, a folid refin, impro ་ Swedeng i T Definition. 2 Kiftory, No author has obtained a more fplendid reputation than Tacitus. He has been accounted, and with good reafon, the most cultivated genius of antiquity; and we muit not feek for his parallel in modern times. It is impoffible not to admire and recommend his intimate knowledge of the human heart, the spirit of liberty which he breathes, and the force and vivacity with which he perpetually expreffes him felf. The reader of tafte is ftruck by the greatnefs of his thoughts and the dignity of his narration; the philofopher by the comprehenfive powers of his mind; and the politician by the fagacity with which he unfolds the fprings of the most secret tranfactions. Civil liberty and the rights of mankind never met with a bolder or a more able afferter: fervitude, debasement, and tyranny, appear not in the wri. tings of any other author in jufter or more odious colours. He has been cenfured as obscure; and indeed nothing can be more certain than that he did not write for the common mass of men. But to those who are judges of his compofitions, it is no matter of regret that his manner is his own, and peculiar. Never were defcription and fentiment fo won derfully and fo beautifully blended; and never were the actions and characters of men delineated with fo much ftrength and precifion. He has all the merits of other hiftorians, without their defects. He poffeffes the diftin&nefs of Xenophon without his uniformity; he is more eloquent than Livy, and is free from his fuperftition; and he has more knowledge and judgment than Polybius, without his affectation of reasoning on every occafion. One of the best editions of the works of Tacitus was pub. Jifhed at Paris by Brotier, in 4 vols 4to. There have been four tranflations of his works into English; the first by Greenway and Sir Henry Saville, in the reign of Eliza beth; the fecond by Dryden and others; the third by Gordon, which is remarkable for affectation of ftyle, though N NAVAL fome think it hears a ftriking resemblance to the original ; and the fourth and belt by Murphy, in 1793, in 4 vols 4to. TACK, a rope ufed to confine the foremost lower corners of the courfes and ftay-fails in a fixed pofition, when the wind croffes the fhip's courfe obliquely. The fame name is alfo given to the rope employed to pull out the lower corner of a ftudding-fail or driver to the extremity of its boom. The main fail and fore-fail of a fhip are furnished with a tack on each fide, which is formed of a thick rope tapering to the end, and having a knot wrought upon the largeft end, by which it is firmly retained in the clue of the fail. By this means one tack is always faftened to windward, at the fame time that the fheet extends the fail to the leeward. TACK, is alfo applied, by analogy, to that part of any fail to which the tack is ufually faftened. A fhip is faid to be on the starboard or larboard tack, when he is close-hauled, with the wind upon the ftarboard or larboard. fide; and in this fense the distance which the fails in that pofition is confidered as the length of the tack; although this is more frequently called board. See, that article. Tack Tactics. 1 To TACK, to change the course from one board to ano ther, or turn the fhip about from the farboard to the larboard tack, in a contrary wind. Thus a fhip being closehauled on the larboard tack, and turning her prow fuddenly to windward, receives the impreffion of the wind on her head-fails, by which the falls off upon the line of the Falconer's ftarboard-tack. Tacking Tacking is alfo ufed in a more enlarged Marine fenfe, to imply that manoeuvre in navigation by which a Dictionary, fhip makes an oblique progreffion to the windward, in a zigzag direction. This, however, is more utually called benting, or turning to windward. See NAVIGATION, SAILING, and Nava TACTICS. TACK, in Scots law. See Law, n° clxvii, TACTICS, in the art of war, is the method of difpofing forces to the best advantage in order of battle, and of performing the feveral military motions and evolutions. See WAR. TA ACTICS Or, The Military Operations of Fleets. AVAL TACTICS is the art of ranging fleets in fuch order or difpofition, as may be judged most conveni ent, either for attacking, defending, or retreating, to the greatest advantage; and to regulate their feveral movements accordingly. It is not a science established on principles abfolutely invariable, but founded on fuch reasons as the alte ration and improvement of arms muft neceffarily occafion in a courfe of time and experience; from which alfo will naturally refult a difference in the construction of ships, in the manner of working them, and, in fine, in the total difpofition and regulation of fleets and fquadrons. We fhall cur forily run through this fucceffion and change of arms, &c. to the prefent improvement of our lines of battle, in order to make us the more fenfible of the reasons which have induced the moderns to prefer so advantageous a choice as they now follow in the arrangement of their fhips. The ancient galleys were fo conftructed as to carry feveral banks of oars, very differently difpofed from thofe in our modern galleys, which, however, vary the leaft of any others from their ancient model. Advanced by the force of their oars, the galleys ran violently aboard of each other, S; and by the mutual encounter of their beaks and prows, and fometimes of their fterns, endeavoured to dash in pice, or fink their enemies. The prow, for this purpose, was commonly armed with a brazen point or trident, nearly as low as the furiace of the fea, in order to pierce the cnemy's fhips under the water. Some of the galleys were furnished with large turrets, and other acceffions of building, either for attack or detence. The foldiers also annoyed their enemies with darts and flings, and, on their nearer approach, with fwords and jave-` lins; and in order that their miffive weapons might be directed with greater force and certainty, the fhips were equipped with feveral platforms, or elevations above the level of the deck. The fides of the fhip were fortified with a thick fence of hides, which ferved to repel the darts of their adverfaries, and to cover their own foldiers, who thereby annoyed the enemy with greater fecurity. As the invention of gunpowder has rendered useless many of the machines employed in the naval wars of the ancients, the great diftance of time has also configned many of them to oblivion: fome few are, nevertheless, recorded in ancient authors History authors, of which we fhall endeavour to prefent a fhort defcription. And firft, The Ap was a large and may piece of lead or iron, caft in the form of a dolphin. This machine being fufpended by blocks at their maft-heads or yard arms, ready or a proper occafion, was let down violently from thence into the adverfe fhips; and either penetrated through their bottom, and opened a paffage for the entering waters, or by its weight immediately funk the veffel. The 47avov was an engine of iron crooked like a fickle, and fixed on the top of a long pole. It was employed to cut asunder the flings of the fail-yards, and, thereby letting the fails fall down, to disable the veffel from escaping, and incommode her greatly during the action. Similar to this was another inftrument, armed at the head with a broad twoedged blade of iron, wherewith they usually cut away the ropes that fastened the rudder to the vessel. Argaia vavu¤x*, a fort of fpears or maces of an extraordinary length, fometimes exceeding 2 cubits, as appears by the 15th Iliad of Homer, by whom they are also called Kigaiaι were certain machines used to throw large ftones into the enemy's fhips. Vegetius mentions another engine which was fufpended to the main-maft, and refembled a battering-ram; for it confifted of a long beam and an head of iron, and was with great violence pushed against the fides of the enemy's galleys. They had also a grappling iron, which was usually thrown into the adverse fhip by means of an engine: this inftrument facilitated the entrance of the foldiers appointed to board, which was done by means of wooden bridges, that were generally kept ready for this purpose in the fore-part of the veffel. See the article Corvus. The arms used by the ancients rendered the difpofition of their fleets very different, according to the time, place, and circumftances of the engagement. They generally confidered it an advantage to be to windward, and to have the fun fhining directly on the front of their enemy. The order of battle chiefly depended on their power of managing the fhips, or of drawing them readily into form; and on the schemes which their officers had concerted. The fleet being composed of rowing veffels, they lowered their fails previous to the action; they prefented their prows to the enemy, and advanced againit cach other by the force of their oars. Before they joined battle, the admirals went from fhip to fhip, and exhorted their foldiers to behave gallantly.. All things being in readiness, the fignal was difplayed by hanging out of the admiral's galley a gilded field, or a red: garment or banner. During the elevation of this, the action continued; and by its depreffion, or inclination towards the right or left, the relt of the fhips were directed how to attack or retreat from their enemies. To this was added the found of trumpets; which began in the admiral's gal ley, and continued round the whole fleet. The fight was. also begun by the admiral's galley, by grappling, boarding, and endeavouring to overfet, fink, or deftroy the adverfary, as we have above described.. Sometimes, for want of grap pling irons, they fixed their oars in fuch a manner as to hinder the enemy from retreating. If they could not manage their oars as dexterously as their antagonist, or fall along. fide fo as to board him, they penetrated his veffel with the brazen prow. The veffels approached each other as well as their circumstances would permit, and the foldiers were: obliged to fight hand to hand till the battle was decided: nor indeed could they fi ht otherwife with any certainty, fince the fortelt diftance rendered their flings and arrows, and almost all their offenfive weapons, ineffectual, if not use. lefs. The fquadrons, were fometimes ranged in, two, or three right lines, parallel to each other; being feldom drawn History. the enemy. Meanwhile, the invention of gunpowder in 1330 gradually introduced the use of fire-arms into naval war, without finally fuperfeding the ancient method of engagement. The Spaniards were armed with cannon in a fea-fight against the English and the people of Poitou abreast of Rochelle in 1372; and this battle is the firft wherein mention is made of artillery in our navies. Many years elapfed before the marine armaments were fufficiently provided with fire-arms. So great a revolution in the manner of fighting, and which. neceffarily introduced a total change in the conftru&ion of fhips, could not be fuddenly effected. In fhort, the fquadrons of men of war are no longer formed of rowing vef fels, or composed of galleys and fhips of the line; but entirely of the latter, which engage under fail, and discharge the whole torce of their artillery from their fides. Accordingly, they are now disposed in no other form than that of a right line parallel to the enemy; every fhip keeping close-hauled upon a wind on the fame tack. Indeed the difference between the force and manner of fighting of fhips and galleys, rendered their fervice in the fame line incompatible. When we confider therefore the change introduced, bothin the construction and working of the ships, occafioned bythe use of cannon, it neceffarily follows, that fquadrons of men of war mut appear in the order that is now generally adopted. The machines which owe their rife-to the invention of gun-: powder have now totally fupplanted the others; so that there is fcarce. any but the fword remaining, of all the weapons used by the ancients. Our naval battles are therefore almost always decided by fire-arms, of which there are feveral kinds, known by the general name of artillery. In a fhip of war, fire. arms are diftinguished into cannon mounted on carriages fwivel-cannon, grenadoes, and mufquetry. See CANNON, &c. Befides thefe machines, there are feveral others used in merchant-fhips and privateers, as cohorns, carabines, firearrows, organs, ftink pots, &c. The writers on naval tactics have been but few, indeed, · confidering the importance of the fubject; and the only. countries that have produced writers on this fubject, so far as we know, are France and Britain, particularly the firs.. One would be led to imagine that Britain, from its infular fituation, having bred fo great a number of excellent feamen,. and.. 22-72 Part I, de Grenier. Tranflations of the two last have appeared in Hiftory. NAVAL TACTIC S. Hiftory and having fo often been engaged in naval contefts, would naturally have produced a number of writers on this, as well as on fubjects of much less confequence to it as a nation. The reader will, however, no doubt be surprised to hear, that we have only one fcientific treatise on naval tactics, intitled An Efay on Naval Tactics, &c. by John Clerk, Efq; of Elden, near Edinburgh; all the other treatifes published in Britain on this fubject being either tranflations from the French, or remarks upon the French authors (A). Some of the principal French treatises on naval tactics are the following: 1. L'Art des Armées Navales, ou Traité des Evolutions Navales, par Paul L'Hofte, I vol. folio, printed at Lyons 1727. This book was tranflated and published by Christopher O'Bryen, Efq; in 4to, in 1762. 2. Tagique Navale, ou Traité des Evolutions et des Signaux, par M. le Viscompte de Morogues, 4to, Paris 1763. 3. Le Manœuvrier, par M. Bourdé de Villehuet. 4. L'Art de Guerre en Mer, ou Tadique Navale, Sc. par M. le Viscompte 3 a fleet into and rear. We shall occasionally confult all these works; and as fome of them treat largely of the tactics in present use, while in others new fyftems are propofed, our article will naturally be divided into two parts, keeping the prefent practice and propofed innovations totally distinct from each other. ICS. PART I. THE PRESENT SYSTEM OF NAVAL TACTICS. Divifion of A FLEET of fhips of war is ufually divided into three di When the fleet is formed in the line or order of battle, each admiral takes his poft in the centre of his fquadron, the commander in chief being in the middle of the line. If the enemy be not in fight, the store-fhips, fire-fhips, floops, &c. are to be to the windward of the fleet, because they can be more easily supported, and can more readily obey the fignals that may be made to them. There are frigates to the windward of the van and rear of the convoy, for the purpose of looking out for the enemy, and keeping those veffels in their proper ftations. But if the enemy is in fight, then all those ships which are not to be in the line of battle are to be on the other fide of the line with respect to the enemy. If the fleet is failing in three columns, the firft or centre squadron is in the middle between the fecond and third fquadrons; one of which, according to circumstances, forms the ftarboard and the other the larboard column: and each admiral leads his refpective divifion. If the fleet is deftined for a certain place at a confiderable diftance, it is generally formed into fquadrons; but if cruifing in expec tation of meeting the enemy, the admiral naturally keeps 4 The starboard line of bearing, is that line upon which the The tar ships of a fleet, being ranged, bear from each other upon a board, clofe-hauled line, whatever courfe they may be steering; and fo that, upon hauling their wind or tacking together as may be neceffary, the fhips will be in a line close-hauled upon the ftarboard tack. 5 The larboard line of bearing, is that line from which the And lar fhips of the fleet, by hauling their wind, or tacking together, board lines of bearing. may be formed in a line close-hauled on the larboard tack. 16 A fleet of fhips is faid to be in the line a-breaft when the The line fhips keels are parallel to each other, and their mainmafts in abreast. the fame ftraight line. line. 7 8 The bow and quarter line, is when the fhips are ranged in Bow and a ftraight line cutting their heels obliquely in the fame angle: quarter Hence at any intermediate fhip, the fhips towards one extremity of the line will be on the bow, and those towards the other extremity will be on the quarter, of that ship. If several ships ftand on the fame line and steer the fame Ships steer. course, but different from that line, they are faid it be in ing chequer wife. echiquier, or chequer wife. 9 Manoeuvre in fucceffion, is when a fleet, ranged in one of Manœuvre the orders of failing, and ftanding on the fame line, the fame in fuccefmanœuvre is fucceffively performed by each fhip as the fion arrives at the wake of the van fhip of the whole fleet, if in one line ; or of the van fhip of her particular divifion when divided into fquadrons. So that a fleet tacks or veers, bears away or comes to the wind in fucceffion, when all the ships of every line execute, one after another, the faine manœuvre on the fame point of the wake of the leading ship. The number of orders of failing is commonly affumed to Five orbe five; and denominated the firft, fecond, third, fourth, and ders of failfifth orders of failing; befides an order of battle, an order of ng. retreat, &c. In (A) The reason why Britain falls fhort of the French in this refpect, is, that in various fea-ports in France there are academies established for the express purpose of educating those intended for the navy in the various branches of naval fcience; whereas, in Britain, there is only one academy eftablifhed at the expence of government, namely, the Marine Academy at Portsmouth; and, excepting navigation, scarcely any other branch of naval fcience is taught in that seminary. It also requires great intereft to be admitted. We are, indeed, well aware that there are boys educated for the fea-fervice in Chrift's Hofpital, London, and at Greenwich school, &c. The education there is not, however, adapted for officers in the navy, being only writing, arithmetic, a little mathematics neceflary to upderftand navigation, and navigation. |