storms, though they blow over divers times, yet may fall at last; and, as the Spanish proverb noteth well, The cord breaketh at the last by the weakest pull.'

The causes and motives of Seditions are, innovation in religion, taxes, alteration of laws and customs, breaking of privileges, general oppression, advancement of unworthy persons, strangers, 32 dearths, disbanded soldiers, factions grown desperate; and whatsoever in offending people joineth and knitteth them in a common cause.

For the remedies, there may be some general preservatives, whereof we will speak: as for the just 33 cure, it must answer to the particular disease; and so be left to counsel rather than rule.

34

The first remedy, or prevention, is to remove, by all means possible, that material cause of Sedition whereof we spake, which is, want and poverty in the estate; to which purpose serveth the opening and well-balancing of trade; 35 the cherishing of manufactures; the banishing of idleness; the repressing of waste and excess, by sumptuary laws; the improvement and husbanding of the soil; the regulating of prices of things vendible; the moderating of taxes and tributes, and the like. Generally, it is to be foreseen that the population of a kingdom (especially if it be not mown down by wars) do not exceed the stock 36 of the kingdom which should maintain them: neither is the population to be reckoned only by number; for a smaller number, that spend more and earn less, do wear out an estate sooner than a greater number that live lower and gather more: therefore the multiplying of nobility, and other degrees of quality,37 in an over proportion to the common people, doth speedily bring a state to necessity; and so doth likewise an overgrown clergy, for they bring nothing to the stock; and, in like manner, when more are bred scholars than preferments can take off.38

It is likewise to be remembered, that, forasmuch, as the increase of any estate must be upon the foreigner 39 (for whatsoever is somewhere gotten is somewhere lost), there be but three things which one nation selleth

unto another-the commodity, as nature yieldeth it; the manufacture; and the vecture, or carriage so that, if these three wheels go, wealth will flow as in a spring tide. And it cometh many times to pass, that, 'materiam superabit opus,' 40 that the work and carriage is more worth than the material, and enricheth a state more: as is notably seen in the Low Countrymen, who have the best mines 41 above ground in the world.

Above all things, good policy is to be used, that the treasure and moneys in a state be not gathered into few hands; for, otherwise, a state may have a great stock, and yet starve: and money is like muck,42 not good except it be spread. This is done chiefly by suppressing, or, at least, keeping a strait 43 hand upon the devouring trades of usury, engrossing great pasturages, and the like.

44

For removing discontentments, or, at least, the danger of them, there is 45 in every state (as we know) two portions of subjects, the Noblesse and the Commonalty. When one of these is discontent,46 the danger is not great; for common people are of slow motion, if they be not excited by the greater sort; and the greater sort are of small strength, except the multitude be apt and ready to move of themselves: then is the danger, when the greater sort do but wait for the troubling of the waters amongst the meaner, that then they may declare themselves. The poets feign that the rest of the gods would have bound Jupiter; which he hearing of, by the counsel of Pallas, sent for Briareus, with his hundred hands to come in to his aid: an emblem, no doubt, to show how safe 47 it is for monarchs to make sure of the goodwill of common people.

To give moderate liberty for griefs and discontentments to evaporate (so it be without too great insolency or bravery 48), is a safe way: for he that turneth the humours back, and maketh the wound bleed inwards, endangereth malign ulcers and pernicious imposthumations.49

The part of Epimetheus 50 might well become Prometheus, in the case of discontentments, for there is not

a better provision against them. Epimetheus, when griefs and evils flew abroad, at last shut the lid, and kept Hope in the bottom of the vessel. Certainly, the politic and artificial nourishing and entertaining of hopes, and carrying men from hopes to hopes, is one of the best antidotes against the poison of discontentments; and it is a certain sign of a wise government and proceeding, when it can hold men's hearts by hopes, when it cannot by satisfaction; 51 and when it can handle things in such manner as no evil shall appear so peremptory but that it hath some outlet of hope; which is the less hard to do, because both particular persons and factions are apt enough to flatter themselves, or at least to brave that which they believe not.

Also the foresight and prevention, that there be no likely or fit head whereunto discontented persons may resort, and under whom they may join, is a known, but an excellent point of caution. I understand a fit head to be one that hath greatness and reputation, that hath confidence with the discontented party, and upon whom they turn their eyes, and that is thought discontented in his own particular;52 which kind of persons are either to be won and reconciled to the state, and that in a fast and true manner; or to be fronted with some other of the same party that may oppose them, and so divide the reputation. Generally, the dividing and breaking of all factions and combinations that are adverse to the state, and setting them at distance, or, at least, distrust amongst themselves, is not one of the worst remedies; for it is a desperate case, if those that hold with the proceeding of the state be full of discord and faction, and those that are against it be entire and united.

I have noted, that some witty and sharp speeches,53 which have fallen from princes, have given fire to Seditions. Cæsar did himself infinite hurt in that speech: 'Sylla nescivit literas, non potuit dictare;' for it did utterly cut off that hope which men had entertained, that he would at one time or other give over his dictatorship. Galba undid himself by that speech, Legi a se militem,

non emi;' for it put the soldiers out of hope of the donative. Probus, likewise, by that speech, Si vixero, non opus erit amplius Romano imperio militibus;' a speech of great despair for the soldiers; and many the like. Surely princes had need in tender 54 matters and ticklish 55 times to beware what they say, especially in these short speeches, which fly abroad like darts, and are thought to be shot out of their secret intentions; for as for large discourses, they are flat things,56 and not so much noted.

Lastly, let princes, against all events, 57 not be without some great person, one or rather more, of military valour, near unto them, for the repressing of Seditions in their beginnings; for without that, there useth to be more trepidation in court upon the first breaking out of troubles than were fit; and the state runneth the danger of that which Tacitus saith: 'Atque is habitus animorum fuit, ut pessimum facinus auderent pauci, plures vellent, omnes paterentur:'58 but let such military persons be assured,59 and well reputed of, rather than factious and popular;60 holding also good correspondence with the other great men in the state; or else the remedy is worse than the disease.

1. Calendars.'

NOTES ON ESSAY XV.

The word seems here used to mean accurate predictions of the weather; the word used for it in the Latin edition is prognostica.

A calendar is an almanac or ephemeris, giving the computed positions of heavenly bodies for every day in the year, and other data for the use of the astronomer or navigator. The heavenly bodies, especially the moon, were believed to influence human affairs, especially the weather; and hence almanacs commonly contained weather prognostications such as are alluded to here. 2. 'equality'-level. The analogical argument which Bacon uses is a poor and unsound one; he says that just as the weather is generally rough and stormy at times when the nights are equal to the days, so seditions are most frequent and troublesome when the poorer classes enjoy prosperity and lose some of their respect for wealth and rank. He seems to think it dangerous either that the higher classes should decline or the lower make progress.

3. 'cquinoctia'-the equinoxes. The word equinox is now thor

oughly Anglicised; but in Bacon's time the pure Latin word equinoctium was used.

4. The quotation is from Virgil's Georgics, i, 465: 'He (the Sun) also often warns us that tumults are at hand, that conspiracies and secretly-plotted wars are ready to burst forth.'

5. Quoted from Virgil's Eneid, iv, 179-181: 'Mother earth, exasperated at the anger of the gods, brought her forth, a last birth (as they say), sister to the giants Cous and Enceladus.'

6. 'fames'-seditious rumours, false and libellous news.

7. plausible'-praiseworthy, to be applauded.

8. traduced'-misrepresented, calumniated, defamed.

9. Quoted, but not with literal accuracy, from Tacitus, Hist., i, 7: 'When once public odium is inflamed, all his actions are assailed whether good or bad.'

IO. 'that.' The repetition of this word is ungrammatical. Its insertion may be due to oversight, or to a desire to give clearness, or simply to the common custom, now obsolete, of using that as a mere expletive, e.g. because that, in that, for that, before that, etc.

II. 'going about'-attempt, endeavour.

'They never go about to hide or palliate their vices'-SWIFT.

'Why go ye about to kill me?'—John vii, 19.

12. They (the soldiers) attended to their duties, but still as preferring that the commands of their rulers should be discussed than obeyed-Tacitus' Hist., ii, 39.

15.

'common parents'-parents to the whole state or commonwealth, and not to a party in the state.

The word common is properly used (like general, for which see note II, Essay VI) in an unrestricted sense for pertaining to all. It is the opposite to proper, which means confined to some. Thus, commons are lands of unrestricted ownership; a common room is one which is open for the use of all; the 'Book of Common Prayer' is so called because designed for the use of the whole realm.

16. 'League.' Henry III, a weak and self-indulgent King of France, joined the Holy League, which had been founded by the Guises in support of the Catholic party against the Huguenots. In 1588, however, the power of the League was turned against him, and he was driven out of Paris. 'accessary'-subordinate, inferior help.

17.

18. other bands,' etc. When a party is formed upon some principle or pretext which overrides that loyalty to the sovereign which ought to be absolutely supreme in all matters.

19. 'primum mobile.' In the old or Ptolemaic system of astronomy, which was the one commonly believed for thirteen