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force, stating at the same time with much precision, the formidable objections that have been or may be urged against their conflicting demands. Having thus introduced the various pleadings in behalf of Haerlem, Mentz, and Strasburgh, urged by their respective advocates, he finally draws a conclusion in favour of Mentz, in the following words. "One question, we are of opinion, will settle this long contested point: viz. Had the Mentz printers any rival prior to 1446? Certainly not. Then we can have no hesitation in decorating their brows with the laurel wreath, as a just reward for their ingenuity and exertion, which others have vainly endeavoured to deprive them of."-vol. I. p. 33. The individuals to whom this honour is awarded are GUTTENBERG and FAUST.

That the art of Printing should meet with many serious obstacles in an age distinguished chiefly by its ignorance, bigotry, and superstition, we might more reasonably expect than doubt. These arose from various interested quarters, but principally from the Monks, who imagined their craft to be in danger, as may be gathered from the following passages.

"On the first spreading of the Art, the body of monks, scribes, illuminators, and readers, strenuously endeavoured with all their might to check its growth, not only by striving to make their manuscripts excel in respect to neatness, but they would decry all old books as unprofitable, they being difficult to be read, which, doubtless, caused many a valuable work to be cast aside, and consequently lost to the world, nothing being considered good with them but what was new, and, as they stated, easy to be read. The vast expense attending the production of a Library by this slow and tedious process, has, we trust, been sufficiently explained by the extracts just given; therefore none but sovereign princes, and persons of wealth, could boast the possession of works of this description.

"These proceedings for the advancement of learning and knowledge alarmed the ignorant and illiterate monks; insomuch that they declaimed from the pulpits, "There was a new language discovered, called Greek, of which people should beware, since it was that which produced all the heresies: that in this language was come forth a book called the New Testament, which was now in every body's hands, and was full of thorns and briers: that there was also another language now started up, which they called Hebrew, and that they who learned it were turned Hebrews." Here in England, the great Erasmus tells us, his publishing the New Testament in its original language met with a great deal of clamour and opposition, that one college in the University

of Cambridge in particular, absolutely forbade the feigned authority of synods, and magnify the use of it. "These," says he, "object to us the great peril of the christian faith and the danger of the church, which they pretend to support with their shoulders, who are much fitter to prop a waggon. And these clamours they disperse among the ignorant and superstitious populace, with whom, having the reputation of being great divines, they are loth to have their opinions called in question, and are afraid that when they quote the Scripture wrong, as they often do, the authority of the Greek and Hebrew verity should be cast in their teeth, and that by and by appear to be a dream, which was by them given out for an oracle." Accordingly the Vicar of Croydon, in Surry, is said to have expressed himself to the following purpose in a sermon which he preached at Paul's Cross, "We must root out Printing, or Printing will root out us."

"The discovery of Printing contributed greatly to the production of learned men in Europe. Lord Herbert, in his Life of King Henry VII. p. 147, supposed that Cardinal Wolsey stated the effects of this Art to the Pope thus: "That his holiness could not be ignorant what diverse effects this new invention of printing had produced: for, it had brought in, and restored books and learning; so toge ther it hath been the occasion of those sects and schisms, which daily appeared in the world, but chiefly in Germany; where men begin now to call in question the present faith and tenets of the Church, and to examine how far religion is departed from its primitive institution. And that, which particularly was most to be lamented, they had exhorted lay and ordinary men to read the Scriptures, and to pray in their vulgar tongue; and if this was suffered, besides all other dangers, the common people at last might come to believe that there was not so much use of the clergy. For if men were persuaded once, they could make their own way to God, and that prayers in their native and ordinary language might pierce heaven as well as Latin; how much would the authority of the mass fall? For this purpose, since Printing could not be put down, it were best to set up learning against learning; and by introducing able persons to dispute, to suspend the laity between fear and controversy. This at worst would yet make them attentive to their superiors and teachers."-p. 605.

On comparing the preceding extracts, with the commands and cautions of his holiness in modern days, we may safely conclude, that if Popery is not infallible, it is at least immutable in its exertion to perpetuate ignorance, and to prevent a knowledge of the sacred writings from being communicated to the people. The present pope has only echoed the enlightened opinion of Erasmus, and the real sentiments of Cardinal Wolsey.

Of the Printers which appeared in England from the days of Caxton to the termination of the fifteenth century, Mr. Johnson has given a brief

biographical account. During the ensuing century his notices are less distinct, and in the subsequent periods when the art began to multiply, less occasion appears for historical details. The devices which were adopted by the Printers in these early ages of Printing, are both curious and amusing; they exhibit at once the peculiar taste of the times in which they appeared, and evince in their inventors a considerable share of ingenuity. Of these devices numerous wood-cuts are given, which are so neatly executed, as to shew to what a degree of perfection this particular branch of the kindred art has recently been brought. The second volume contains, among other interesting matter, a minute description of a Printing Office, with all its apparatus, a vocabulary of names applied to each particular article, an explanation of its import and use, with directions for such arrangements as the regularity of the art requires.

Of the ancient and modern alphabets, the domesday character, and the ancient manner of abbreviation, many well-executed specimens are given, together with the orthography which prevailed from the infancy to the perfection of the art. Nor are these delineations of typographical characters confined to the English language. From the hieroglyphics of the Egyptians, down through most of the variations of letters known throughout the world, some specimens are inserted, accompanied with such observations as can hardly fail to make even the unlearned reader acquainted with their import and application.

In these volumes, nearly all the varieties of type now in use in this country, are introduced, in a style of neatness and elegance which few modern publications can boast. To the head that devised this work, the intellect that arranged its varied materials, and the hand that embodied the whole, much praise is due. It must have been an undertaking of great labour, and of almost endless research; requiring a degree of ability and patience which rarely falls to the lot of any one individual.

vances have been made of late towards perfection; in many cases the art has been stationary, and in some retrograde. This in part he attributes to the badness of modern paper, but still more so to the practice of stereotyping, and most of all to the system of taking off impressions by steam and hand machines. These modern innovations he most unequivocally condemns, except in some peculiar cases. He views them as engines of private emolument, calculated to degrade the art, and to turn the industrious pressman out of employment.

To those who delight in typographical variety, executed with unassuming neatness at a vast expense, these volumes will be found highly gratifying; but they will prove more so to such as feel an interest in tracing the progressive improvements of the press and all its appendages, from the rude efforts of early days, to the minute and varied excellencies contained in the work of Mr. Johnson, which details the history and describes the march of this powerful instrument.

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THE present age has been characterized as one of rebuke and blasphemy. That there are blasphemers, and propagators of blasphemy and licentiousness, are faults which no one will deny who is at all acquainted with passing events, and especially with the productions of the infidel part of the press; productions studiously suited to the taste and pockets of the various classes of society. But blasphemy and irreligion are not the prominent features of the age. Never was there a time when, among the thinking part of the community, these had so few admirers, and were so generally denounced. Not all the charms which a luxuriant imagination, combined with intellect of the highest orOn comparing the Printing of the der, has thrown around productions at present day with that which was exe- variance with the principles and pucuted some years since, the author rity of our common Christianity, have conceives we have but little room for been able to preserve them from that triumph. He thinks that very few ad-execration to which they are entitled.

It is indeed true, that many agents are at work to corrupt the principles of their neighbours; but it is not less so, that a much more numerous and powerful agency is in constant operation to improve those principles, and to advance the character and happiness of man.

An essential part of that agency is the christian ministry. It hath pleased God by the foolishness of preaching to save them that believe. No system of philosophy or ethics ever saved those who embraced it. This honour belongs to the gospel only; and therefore we are glad when the public taste is in favour of the gospel,-when that ministry is attended, and those books are read, in which what is strictly and properly the gospel occupies a prominent part. Such, in common with the preceding volumes, is the character of the one before us, which concludes the series, and contains, in addition to the usual number of sketches, an index to the subjects, and another to the texts, which are treated of in the whole of the eight volumes. Of the former parts of this work we have in more than one instance expressed our opinion; and if the public approbation be at all a test of excellence, or if the utility of a work can be estimated by the extended sphere of its circulation, these volumes need no commendation of ours. They contain sketches of four hundred sermons, or rather sermons in a condensed form, on the most important subjects of christian theology, and, as far as they exhibitjudicious comments on so many interesting passages of holy scripture, they cannot, even by general readers, of serious minds, be perused in vain. But, for the use of preachers we conceive they are specially designed. How far they may minister to indolence, we have no means of knowing; but should they in a few cases thus operate, it will so far be a complete perversion of their object, which is not to supersede, but to aid and promote mental exertion.

A writer in a contemporary journal has said, that, "He who with suffieient qualifications for his work resorts to publications of this kind for assistance, would be much more profitably occupied in reading and digesting the sermons of our standard divines." But why should a man who is sufficiently qualified for his work apply to

any one, even to standard divines, for assistance? Sufficient qualification supersedes the necessity of aid from standard as well as all other divines. If, however, he merely meant to say, that works of superior merit are more valuable, and might be consulted to greater advantage, than inferior ones, then he has uttered a truism which none will attempt to controvert-a truism as incontrovertible as that the ministry of such men as Hall and Chalmers is preferable to that of the mere village preacher, that an Encyclopedia is of more value than a pocket dictionary,-and that a library enriched with the lore of olden and of modern times, is incomparably superior to that of the humble cottager. We also join in recommending standard divines and their works, but we are not of those who would say-hear no preacher except the very best; read no works but those of the highest order: for were this advice acted upon, alas! many of our churches and chapels would be depopulated, and not a few of those works which in that journal have been recommended, would retire to oblivion. Such a doctrine would annihilate a major portion of that agency at present successfully employed in advancing science, and in evangelizing the world.

The number of contributors to the present volume is ten, and the sketches exhibit that variety of style and composition which might be expected. The doctrine is truly evangelical, the language is popular, and equally remote from coarseness on the one hand, and turgid bombast on the other; the expositions are in general judicious, and the arrangements for the most part are honourable to the analytical powers of their authors. We wish we could say as much for the manner in which it has been got up, but this we cannot, for it abounds in typographical errors, which would be a disgrace to a printer of ballads and last dying speeches. We thought of furnishing a list of Errata, but the multitude was so appalling as to affright us from our purpose. We hope that in a second edition these errors will be corrected.

To those persons who occasionally address their neighbours in public, and who have little time for reading and study, and are not favoured with a library of standard works, we re

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THE preface to this volume contains scarcely any thing more than a declaration that in writing it the author had nothing to communicate. Guided by this avowal, we began a perusal of the poems, without any strong prepossession in their favour, and for some time expectation sustained no disappointment. Our attention, however, was occasionally arrested as we

passed along, by finding here and there some brilliant expressions, some animated descriptions, and some vigorous thoughts, which demanded a reperusal, and the result has been much in favour of the writer's talents.

In "Tasso and the Sisters," the characters are well preserved, and the dialogue is kept up with a becoming spirit; but we cannot avoid thinking, that the subject is too insignifi

cant for its decorations.

In the short piece entitled "The Skeletons," there is a degree of roving wildness in the verse, which seems exactly suited to the subject. The following is a speech delivered by one of these bony inhabitants of the sepulchre, from which the reader may form his opinion of the author's

muse:

'Mid waves of fire; until a burricane
Arose, and bore the lofty masts away,
Sank in the flaming billows, and a shriek
As they were feeble osiers; then the ship
Spoke tales of torture-but I felt no pain.
Again I dream'd: and thought me on the top
Of a sky-touching tree, from which I fell-
And falling, snatch'd at every neighb'ring
branch,

In hope to cling thereto; but each in turn
Broke in my grasp and down, and down I
went,
With varied motion, till the dream decay'd.
And next came more than visionary grief;
For life appear'd returning to my frame:
My eyelids open'd, but I could not see;
And heard them creeping round me, bat to
I felt the gnawing of the hungry worms,

move

power:

And crush their myriads was beyond my Then burning thirst assail'd me--but I knew That no blest liquids sparkled in the grave, And the dire knowledge parch'd my lips the

more :

Grew to intolerable agony,
I tried to speak-but could not, and my pangs

When, in a moment, all the wide earth shook,
And here I wander'd, as thou seest me now.'
p. 51 and 52.

the title, we have neither time nor inOn the other subjects noticed in clination to animadvert. They contain excellencies, but they are not without their defects. The author, we apprehend, is a young man who leisure hours which business affords. can court the muses only during those Under these circumstances his talents appear in a favourable light. They ble of improvement; and should he contain some radical principles caparesolve to keep improvement in view, duce something to give perpetuity as the time may come when he will prowell as publicity to his name.

AN INQUIRY INTO THE CAUSE OF
SPECTRAL ILLUSION.

THERE are few subjects of more general interest than the one which we have proposed for illustration and discussion in the present essay. For pro-ledge, the superstitious notions of past notwithstanding the diffusion of know

"In strange and desultory fashion thus Spoke each stern Skeleton-and I mov'd on; Till, suddenly, another in my path Stood tall and fearful, and these words

nounc'd:

"Hark unto tidings of the airless grave! My body lay as dead within the earth: It mov'd not, felt not; neither saw, nor heard;

But still I had a consciousness of life,
Commingled with a dim idea of death:
I knew that I was utterly alone-
Apart from all things living, save the worm,
Whose bravest palace is the well-stor'd tomb.
And I had many dreams-such dreams as come
O'er brains molested by a calenture:
Now seem'd I on a vessel's busy deck,

ages have been perpetuated to this. The pain which these notions occasion to the weak and the ignorant, as well as to those whose reasoning powers do not enable them entirely to overcome the impressions of childhood, excite commiseration and pity in the bosom of those who have emancipated themselves from the thraldom. These sources of misery and delusion

will not be disregarded by the Christian: taking the lamp of philosophy, he will enter into the mystic chambers of the mind, and holding up the light, its rays will dissipate the spectral form which a diseased imagination had drawn there. The woods and the groves, and the castellated edifices, lose their aerial inhabitants, when with the torch of truth he has explored the intricacies of the one, and traversed the apartments of the other. Man is an intellectual being, possessed of various faculties, capable of almost indefinite improvement. Respecting the cultivation of these, the most erroneous ideas are entertained, or the greatest indifference cherished. In either case, the result is injurious. If we look at the infant in the arms of the mother, or engaged with its toys on the floor of the nursery, we feel disposed to affirm that the impressions produced at so early an age can be but of little importance; yet fact will bear me out in the assertion, that the stories which have been told by the nurse have been productive of the most important effects on the mental constitution. The belief then produced has continued a 66 thorn in the flesh," through the whole period of earthly existence. The child that listens with half-opened mouth, quivering lip, fixed gaze, and a countenance strongly marked with the lineaments of terror, to the oft-told tale of spectred horror, will seldom in future life be able to conquer his credulity. The clock that warns him of the midnight hour excites a tremulous emotion, and should his way lie through localities with which the winter evening tales he has heard were connected, he will probably select some signpost, or church-yard monument, and, by the aid of a disordered imagination, clothe the one in the habiliments of the murderer, and invest the other with all the paraphernalia of death.

The national institutions of a country, especially those of a religious character, very much influence the powers of the mind, especially the imagination, increasing or decreasing the credulity of those who are habituated to them. These institutions contribute much to the formation of character. In France, but especially in Italy, we see the influence of Roman-Catholieism introducing a belief in the splendid mummeries of a sensual ritual,

74.-VOL. VII.

and the fictitious miracles of interested priests. The credulity produced in one case is also worked upon by the tales handed down from generation to generation in another. In Germany, the vestiges which still remain of baronial domination and feudal tyranny, contribute in no inconsiderable degree to keep up the faith in supernatural forms, which still obtains there. Even in two important parts of the British dominions, these causes operate in a very considerable measure. In Ireland, and in the Highlands of Scotland, a belief in spectral illusions is very generally diffused.

The belief of a future existence so universally prevailing, has contributed its quota to the faith in apparitions. In nations that have been blest with the revelations of God, as well as those who have not, the twilight of ignorance rests upon the spirit land. We see the body from which the spirit has fled, but we know not whither the spirit has departed. Unable to point out the localities of heaven or of hell, men have supposed that spirits have occasionally visited and appeared unto them. A feeling so generally prevalent has been worked upon and strengthened by the writers of romances, till a ghost story seems almost essential to the perfection of their compositions. Addressing the imagination, they debase its creations, and the beings which it forms become objects of terror.

The

These causes combining, serve to give rise, and to perpetuate, the superstitious dread of supernatural appearances, and often produce that disposition which undoubtedly exists in some minds to mental illusion. circumstances into which an individual has been thrown in the early period of life, has contributed much to the specific formation of mind, and in consequence of these, one power has been more cultivated than another. The judgment has, for instance, been neglected, and the imagination been left to range uncontrolled through the universe of matter. But the powers of the mind are not the same in all; irrespective of cultivation, they are different in different individuals. Nature imparts not her gifts with an even hand. The imagination of Rousseau had been cultivated so much, and the restraint of the will taken off it, till by its magic touch it called into being a

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