false move is made, and is not discovered until the next move is completed, it cannot be recalled. 10. The king cannot be moved into check, nor within one square of the adverse king, nor can any player move a piece or pawn that leaves his king in check.

Chess Clubs; societies for the purpose of playing chess, and assembling the best players of a place. They flourish most in France and England, but there are many in Germany. They often challenge each other, and the game is carried on by letter.

CHEST (called, in anatomical language, the thorax) is the cavity of the body between the neck and the belly. The external parts of the thorax are the skin, the breasts, various muscles, and the bones which form the frame of the cavity. These are the sternum, running from the neck down the middle of the breast, and the ribs, which are inserted in the spine, and arched towards the sternum, with which they are firmly connected by means of a cartilage. The parts within the cavity of the thorax are the pleura and its productions, the lungs, heart, thymus gland, esophagus, thoracic duct, arch of the aorta, part of the vena cava, the vena azygos, the eighth pair of nerves, and part of the great intercostal nerve.

CHESTER (anciently Deva); a city of England, capital of Cheshire, on the Dee, about 20 miles from the Irish sea, 145 N. Bristol, 181 N. W. London ; lon. 2° 53′ W.; lat. 53° 11' N.; population, 19,949. It is a bishop's see. The city is square, and surrounded by a wall nearly two miles in circumference. It contains a cathedral, nine parish churches, a Roman Catholic chapel, and eight places of worship for dissenters of different persuasions. The streets are hollowed out of a rock to the depth of one story beneath the level of the ground on each side; and the houses have a sort of covered portico running on from house to house, and from street to street, level with the ground behind, but one story above the street in front. The castle is a noble structure; the walls are evidently Norman. It has two yearly fairs, the most considerable in the north of England, held on the 5th of July and 10th of Oct., each lasting 14 days. The manufactures are not extensive; they consist chiefly of tobacco, snuff, shot, white lead, iron, tobacco pipes and leather. It sends two members to parliament.

CHESTERFIELD (Philip Dormer Stanhope), earl of, a statesman, orator and author, born in London, in 1694, studied

with great success at Cambridge. In 1714, he made a tour through Europe, and acquired, particularly at Paris, that polished grace of manners for which he was distinguished. On the accession of George I, general Stanhope, his great uncle, procured him the place of gentleman of the bed-chamber to the prince of Wales; and the borough of St. Germain's, in Cornwall, elected him to parliament, though he had not yet attained the legal age. At the close of the first month of his membership, he delivered a speech, in which he astonished the audience by the vigor of his thoughts no less than by the elegance of his style, and the facility and grace of his delivery. He distinguished himself equally in the house of lords, in which he took his seat after his father's death. In 1728, he was appointed ambassador to Holland, and succeeded in delivering Hanover from the calamities of a war, by which it was threatened. On his return, he was made knight of the garter and lord steward of the household to George II. He was afterwards appointed lord-lieutenant of Ireland, and, on his return, in 1746, received the place of secretary of state; but he soon retired from public affairs, and devoted the remainder of his life to study and the society of his friends. His talents as an author are displayed in several moral, critical and humorous essays, in his parliamentary speeches, which were printed at a later period, and particularly in a collection of letters to his son, which are celebrated throughout Europe. To the charms of wit and grace he united good sense, a thorough knowledge of the manners, customs and the political condition of Europe, extensive information, a noble and unaffected elegance, and a style that would do honor to the most experienced writer. All this, however, cannot excuse the corrupt moral tone of his letters. One is shocked to hear a father recommending to his son grace of manners as the most essential quality for a man of the world, and even instigating him to licentious irregularities. must be mentioned, however, in his excuse, that the young man to whom these letters were addressed (a natural son, whom he had adopted under the name of Stanhope), was remarkable for the awkwardness of his manners, and that his father, who set so high a value on elegance, hoped to inspire him with the same taste, by setting the subject in its strongest light. His efforts, however, were not successful. Towards the close of his life, Chesterfield became deaf, and suffered from other

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bodily infirmities, which cast a gloom over his last days. He was intimate with Pope, Swift, Bolingbroke, and other distinguished scholars, and an acquaintance of doctor Johnson, who called him a wit among lords, and a lord among wits, and said of his letters, that they taught the morals of a prostitute and the manners of a dancing-master. He died in 1773, at the age of 79.

CHESTNUT. The sweet chestnut (fagus castanea) is a stately tree, and is distinguished by having spear-shaped and pointed leaves, with tapering serratures at the edge. The flowers appear in long, hanging spikes, or clusters, about the month of May; and the fruit, which is ripe in September, is enveloped in a husk defended by a great number of complicated prickles. Notwithstanding the known durability of the oak, there does not appear any well authenticated instance of the age of an oak being equal to that of the celebrated chestnut-tree at Tortworth, in Gloucestershire, which was known as a boundary mark in the reign of king John. This tree is supposed to have been then more than 500 years old, making its age at this time above 1100 years. The diameter of its trunk is 15 feet, and it still continues to bear fruit. Few forest trees are more beautiful than the chestnut. It is true that the generality of painters prefer the oak for its picturesque form; yet, in the landscapes of Salvator Rosa, and other celebrated masters, chestnut-trees are very conspicuous. The timber of this tree was formerly much in use. It is frequently used for the beams and rafters of houses, and its appearance so nearly resembles that of the oak, that it requires the eye of a good judge to distinguish them from each other. For the heads and staves of casks, the wood of the chestnut is considered peculiarly excellent; and pipes made of it for the conveyance of water under ground are said to be more durable than those made of either elm or oak. For furniture, it may be stained so as somewhat to resemble mahogany. Hop-poles and poles for espaliers, and dead fences, made of young chestnut-trees, are preferred to most others. In the U. States, it is chiefly used in the manufacture of rails for fences.

CHESTNUT, HORSE. (See Horse-Chestnut.)

CHEVAL, A (French); on horseback; astride any object. In a military sense, a body of troops is said to be à cheval of a river, if one wing is stationed on the right and the other on the left bank.

CHEVAUX DE FRISE (Friesland horses,

so called because first used at the siege of Groningen, in that province, in 1658); an armed beam of square timber or iron, used to defend the fronts of camps, breaches, &c. They are usually from 15 to 18 feet long, and connected by chains, each being perforated with small holes, to receive rods of wood or iron, pointed at their extremities, and, when moved in any direction, affording a sort of hedge of spears.

CHÉZY, Antoine Leonard; born at Paris, in 1773; professor of the Oriental languages, first professor of the Sanscrit language and literature in the collège royal, at Paris, the chair of which was established for him by Louis XVIII; and one of the conservators of the royal or national library. He has translated the poem Mejnun and Leila from the Persian into French, from which A. Th. Hartmann (Leipsic, 1807) translated it into German. In 1814, he published an episode from the Sanscrit, entitled Death of Yajuadatta. His wife is known in Germany, under the name of Helmina, as a prose writer and a poetess. Her mother was a daughter of the well-known German poetess, madame Karschin. Helmina was born in Berlin, Jan. 26, 1783, lived for a time with madame de Genlis in Paris, and resides in or near Vienna. She has written poetry, novels, tales, and an opera, Euryanthe, for Maria von Weber.

CHIABRERA, Gabriel; a poet, born at Savona, in the Genoese territory, in 1552. Sound in mind and body, he lived to a great age, and died at Savona in 1638. His poetical genius developed itself late, and he was considerably advanced, when he began to study the poets attentively. He preferred the Greeks, and particularly Pindar, his admiration for whom inspired him with the desire of imitating him. Thus he created a manner and style which was altogether different from that of the other Italian lyric poets, and which procured him the surname of the Italian Pindar. Equally successful were his attempts to imitate Anacreon; his canzonets are as easy and elegant as his canzoni are sublime. He is, besides, the author of several epic, dramatic, pastoral and other poems. His fame soon spread over all Italy. He visited Rome, and resided a considerable time at Florence and Genoa. Wherever he went, he was loaded with presents and honors.

CHIAOUS, OF CHIAOUX, is a French corruption of the Turkish word chaush, or chavush, the title of the royal messengers or gentlemen-ushers in the court of the

grand signor. Their office partakes both of a civil and military character, and they act as the heralds and messengers of the empire.

CHIARAMONTI; the family name of pope Pius VII. (q. v.) Like his predecessors, Clement XIV and Pius VI, from whom the museum Pio-Clementinum is called, he augmented the treasures of art in the Vatican. The museums established there by him and during his government are called after him; but this name is particularly applied to that collection of ancient statues and reliefs, which are placed in the hall adjoining the museum Pio-Clementinum. The selection and arrangement of these were committed to Canova. The description of this museum (Il Museo Chiaramonti descritto ed illustrato da Filippo Aurelio Visconti e Gius. Ant. Guattani, &c., Rome, 1818, fol.) forms a supplement to the work on the museo PioClementino, published by Giamb. and Ennio Quir. Visconti.-The entrance into the museo Chiaramonti, as well as into the library of the Vatican, is by the museo (Chiaramonti) delle inscrizioni, the museum of Greek and Roman inscriptions, which are inserted in the walls of a long corridor a collection which has not its equal in Europe. The pope caused it to be arranged by Gaet. Marini. The entrance to it is through the loggie of the Vatican. There is also a Biblioteca Chiaramonti, containing the whole library of cardinal Zelada, which has been added to the Vatican.

CHIARI, Pietro; a prolific writer of comedies and novels; born at Brescia, towards the beginning of the 18th century. After having completed his studies, he entered the order of Jesuits, but soon changed the monastic for the secular life, and, thus becoming free from all official duties, devoted himself solely to letters. He resided at Venice, with the title of poet to the duke of Modena, and, in the space of 10 or 12 years, brought more than 60 comedies on the stage. Chiari and Goldoni were rivals, but the public adjudged the palm to the latter. Chiari's dramas in verse fill 10 vols. ; those in prose, 4. He is not destitute of invention nor of art in the management of his subjects, but his works are deficient in animation, vigor and humor. He died at Brescia, at a very advanced age, in 1787 or 1788.

CHIARO SCURO (an Italian phrase, meaning clear-obscure; in French, clair-obscur), in painting, is the art of judiciously distributing the lights and shadows in a picture. A composition, however perfect in

other respects, becomes a picture only by means of the chiaro scuro, which gives faithfulness to the representation, and therefore is of the highest importance for the painter; at the same time, it is one of the most difficult branches of an artist's study, because of the want of precise rules for its execution. Every art has a point where rules fail, and genius only can direct. This point, in the art of painting, is the chiaro scuro. The drawing of a piece may be perfectly correct, the coloring may be brilliant and true, and yet the whole picture remain cold and hard. This we find often the case with the ancient painters before Raphael; and it is one of the great merits of this sublime artist, that he left his masters far behind him in chiaro scuro, though he is considered not so perfect in this branch as Correggio and Titian, who were inferior to him in many other respects. The mode in which the light and shade are distributed on any single object is easily shown by lines supposed to be drawn from the source of the light which is shed over the figure; but chiaro scuro comprehends, besides this, aerial perspective, and the proportional force of colors, by which objects are made to advance or recede from the eye, produce a mutual effect, and form a united and beautiful whole. Chiaro scuro requires great delicacy of conception and skill of execution; and excellence in this branch of art is to be attained only by the study of nature and of the best masters.— Chiaro scuro is also understood in another sense, paintings in chiaro scuro being such as are painted in light and shade and reflexes only, without any other color than the local one of the object, as representations of sculpture in stone or marble. There are some fine pieces of this sort in the Vatican at Rome, by Polidoro da Caravaggio, and on the walls of the staircase of the royal academy of London, by Cipriani and Rigaud.

CHICKEN, MOTHER CAREY'S. (See Petrel.)

CHIHUAHUA; a state or province of Mexico, bounded E. by Coaghuila, S. by Durango, and W. by Cinaloa and Sonora. It is an elevated district, and suffers for want of water.

Chihuahua; a town of Mexico, and capital of the province of the same name, on a small branch of the Conchos; 180 miles N. W. of Mexico; lon. 104° 30′ W.; lat. 28° 50′ N.; population, 11,600. It is surrounded by rich silver mines.

CHILBLAINS are painful inflammatory swellings, of a deep purple or leaden color,

to which the fingers, toes, heels and other extreme parts of the body are subject, on being exposed to a severe degree of cold. The pain is not constant, but rather pungent and shooting at particular times, and an insupportable itching attends it. In some instances, the skin remains entire; but in others, it breaks, and discharges a thin fluid. When the degree of cold has been very great, or the application long continued, the parts affected are apt to mortify, and slough off, leaving a foul, ill-conditioned ulcer behind. Children and old people are more apt to be troubled with chilblains than persons of middle age; and such as are of a scrofulous habit are remarked to suffer severely from them.

CHILDERMAS DAY; a festival celebrated by the church on the 28th of Dec., in commemoration of the massacre of the Innocents. Bourne, in his Antiquitates Vulgares, mentions a popular superstition, that "it is very unlucky to begin any work upon Childermas day." Revels, however, were held on this day.

CHILE; a country of South America, bounded N. by Buenos Ayres, E. by Buenos Ayres and Patagonia, from which it is separated by the Andes, S. by Patagonia, and W. by the Pacific ocean; lon. 69° to 74° W.; lat. 24° to 45° S.; about 1400 miles long, and from 100 to 200 broad; square miles about 200,000. Population stated, in 1806, at 720,000; by Malte-Brun, in 1820, and a Spanish journal, at 900,000. Another statement, said to be founded on a census, makes it 1,200,000, exclusive of independent Indians. It is divided into two intendencies, St. Jago and Conception, which are subdivided into 13 provinces, viz. Copiapo, Coquimbo, Quillota, Aconcagua, Melippa, St. Jago, Rancagua, Colchagua, Maule, Itata, Chillan, Puchacay and Huilquilemu. The islands are Coquimbanes, Mugillan, Tortoral, Pajaro, Masapiero, Juan Fernandes, Mocha, and the archipelago of Chiloe. The chief towns are Santiago or St. Jago (the capital), Conception, Valparaiso, Valdivia, Chillan, Coquimbo, St. Fernando and Petorca. The rivers are numerous, but small, and have generally rapid currents. Some of the principal ones are the Maule, Biobio, Cauten, Tolten, Valdivia, Chaivin, Bueno and Sinfondo. Chile presents a plain, gradually rising in elevation as it recedes from the coast and approaches the Andes. From this sloping conformation, it is fertilized and beautified by numerous rivers flowing from the Andes; and of these, 53 communicate directly with the Pacific ocean. The coun

try, intercepted between the foot of the Andes and the Pacific ocean, is divided into two equal parts, the maritime and midland. The maritime part is intercepted by three ridges of mountains, running parallel with the Andes, between which are numerous well-watered valleys. The midland country is generally level, of great fertility, and enjoying a delightful climate. The great chain of the Andes traverses the country from north to south, and presents a number of summits, the height of which has been estimated at upwards of 20,000 feet. Among the Chilean Andes there are said to be 14 volcanoes in a state of constant eruption, and a still greater number that discharge smoke at intervals. Chile abounds with vegetable, animal and mineral productions. Maize, rye, barley, pulse, wine, oil, sugar, cotton, and fruits of various kinds, are cultivated. It has luxuriant pastures, which feed numerous herds of cattle. It is rich in mines of gold, silver, copper, tin and iron. All the metals are found; also a variety of earths and precious stones. It is free from dangerous or venomous animals, which are so much dreaded in hot countries, and has but one species of small serpent, and that perfectly harmless. The climate is remarkably salubrious, and the weather generally serene. In the northern provinces, it rarely rains, in some parts never, but dews are abundant; in the central part, rain often continues 3 or 4 days in succession, followed by 15 or 20 days of fair weather; in the southern provinces, rains are much more abundant, and often continue 9 or 10 days without cessation. The rainy season commences in April, and continues through August. Snow falls abundantly on the Andes, but is never seen on the coast. Earthquakes are common. Chile was formerly a colony of Spain, but, in 1810, the people took the government into their own hands, and, in 1818, made a declaration of absolute independence, which has been hitherto uninterrupted, and recently acknowledged by Portugal. The supreme authority was administered by an elective magistrate, called the supreme director, until May, 1827, when a president was substituted, in imitation of the government of the U. States. The Roman Catholic is the established religion of Chile, and the church is very rich. There are said to be about 10,000 monks and nuns in this country, and the religious institutions with which they are connected hold nearly one third of the landed property of the country. The army, in 1818, was stated at 8400

regular troops; the militia at 28,960 men, and the revenue at $2,177,967. The part of Chile lying south of the river Biobio, in lat. 36° 44' S., is inhabited chiefly by Indians. The Araucanians, a celebrated and warlike tribe, inhabit the region lying between the rivers Biobio and Valdivia. They are enthusiastically attached to liberty, and have never been subdued. Of the history of Chile, previous to the middle of the 15th century, nothing more is known than what may be derived from the vague traditions of the natives. In 1535, the Spaniards first visited it. They were, at first, received by the Chileans with the utmost respect; but a cruel massacre of some of their chief men, by order of Almagro, the Spanish general, produced opposite feelings; and Almagro, advancing into the country of the Promancians, was defeated with loss, when the Spaniards, disgusted with their general, and with the state of affairs, returned to Peru, where they arrived in 1538. Two years afterwards, Pizarro despatched Pedro de Valdivia, with 200 Spaniards and a numerous body of Peruvians, to Chile, for the purpose of settling such districts as he should conquer. Valdivia succeeded in overcoming the resistance of the natives, and founded the city of Santiago, Feb. 24, 1541. Hostilities with the natives ensued, till Valdivia, having settled his power in the northern provinces of Chile, turned his arms against the southern portion of the country. In 1550, he founded the city of Conception, and was soon afterwards attacked by the Araucanians, with whom he fought several battles, and was finally defeated and taken prisoner, Dec. 3, 1553. Many battles were subsequently fought between the Spaniards and this tribe of Indians, which, though they generally terminated in favor of the former, were destructive to them, and impeded the progress of the settlements. In 1598, à general insurrection of the Araucanians took place; and, with the assistance of their allies, they put to death every Spaniard whom they found outside of the forts. Villanca, Valdivia, Imperial, and several other towns, were attacked and taken, and Conception and Chillar were burnt. To add to the misfortunes of the Spaniards, the Dutch landed on the Chiloe islands, plundered Chiloe, and put the Spanish garrison to the sword. Hostilities were continued for many years without any extraordinary result. Each party seemed obstinate in its determination, and each committed cruelties and outrages, with which the history of South

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America is unhappily too familiar. length, in 1641, preliminaries of peace were finally settled between the marquis of Baydes, then governor of Chile, and the Araucanians. By the terms of the treaty, the two nations agreed to suspend hostilities, and the Araucanians engaged to prevent any foreign power from landing on their territories. Two years afterwards, the Dutch made an attempt to settle a colony at Valdivia; but, hearing that an army of Spaniards and Araucanians were marching against them, they evacuated Chile. The peace between the Spaniards and Araucanians lasted until 1655, when hostilities again broke out with their former fury, and continued for 10 years with various success. At the end of this period, a formal treaty was made. This peace was more lasting than the former, and, until the beginning of the 18th century, the history of Chile presents little deserving of record. Though tranquil for so long a time, the spirit of the Araucanians was not broken, nor was their aversion to the Spaniards abated. In 1722, a general conspiracy was formed by the nations from the borders of Peru to the river Biobio. At a fixed moment, when the watch-fires were to blaze on the mountains, the Indians were to rise against the whites, and release the country from their yoke. The design, however, miscarried only the Araucanians took up arms; and, after a short contest, peace was again concluded. In 1742, don Josef Manto, then governor, collected the colonists into towns, divided the country into provinces, and founded several new cities. In 1770, an attempt of don Antonio Gonzago to compel the Araucanians to adopt habits of industry, and to associate in towns, was the cause of a new war. At length, peace was restored, one condition of which was that the Araucanians should keep a resident minister at Santiago-a stipulation which proves their power and importance. Chile appears to have enjoyed tranquillity during the remainder of the 18th century, and, being relieved from the hostility of the Araucanians, agriculture and commerce, which had been greatly neglected, soon revived. The occupation of Spain by the French troops, in 1809, caused a revolutionary movement in Chile, as well as in other parts of Spanish America. July 10, 1810, the president Carrasco was deposed by the native inhabitants, and a junta of government was formed, under the pretext of holding the country for Ferdinand, but with the secret intention of ultimately proclaiming inde