the existing representations of Christ, the most ancient is in a basso-relievo of marble, on a sarcophagus, of the 2d or 3d century, in the Vatican. Christ is there exhibited as a young man without beard, with Roman features, flowing and slightly curled hair, wearing a Roman toga, and seated upon a curule chair. In the same place, there is another Christ, of the 4th century, with an oval face, Oriental features, parted hair, and a short, straight beard. This representation was the model which the Byzantine and Italian painters followed until the time of Michael Angelo and Raphael. Since the 16th century, the Italian school has generally taken the heads of Jupiter and Apollo as the models for the pictures of Christ. Different nations have given his image their own characteristic features. The head of Christ has become the highest point of the art of painting among Christian nations; and men of the greatest genius have labored to imbody their conceptions of his divinity, the union of the different virtues of his character, his meekness and firmness, and the full perfection of his Godlike nature. The representations of the Savior by Titian, Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, &c., are among the sublimest productions of modern art. Christ's head is, for the modern artist. what the head of Jupiter or Apollo was for the ancient, with this difference, however, that it has become more especially the ideal of the painter, whilst the others principally furnished subjects for the genius of the sculptor; and this circumstance shows the difference in the character of the two periods of art, which must, of course, be most apparent in their highest productions. Some of the most elevated expressions of the countenance of the Savior, e. g. the glowing love of his divine soul, cannot be well represented by the marble. There exist, however, excellent statues of Christ. The two best of modern times are that of Thorwaldsen at Copenhagen, and that of Dannecker at Stuttgart.

CHRIST-CHURCH COLLEGE. (See Or

ford.)

CHRIST'S HOSPITAL (generally known by the name of Blue coat school, the title having reference to the costume of the children educated there); a school in London, founded by Edward VI, for supporting poor orphans. At the same time St. Bartholomew's hospital was founded, for the wounded and diseased, and Bridewell was assigned as a place of confinement for vagabonds. Charles II connected a mathematical school with it. There

are generally from 1000 to 1200 boys and girls at this establishment, receiving instruction, board and clothing. The great hall at Christ's hospital is remarkable for some very fine pictures.

CHRISTIAN II, king of Denmark, born at Copenhagen, 1481, was educated with little care. While yet a youth, his violent character led him into great extravagances. King John, his father, punished him severely, but in vain. In 1507, he was called to Bergen, to suppress some seditious movements, where he conceived a violent passion for a young Dutchwoman, named Dyveke, whose mother kept an inn. Dyveke became the mistress of Christian, who allowed her, and particularly her mother, an unlimited influence over him. He was viceroy in Norway, until the declining health of his father recalled him to Copenhagen. After he had ascended the throne, he married, in 1515, Isabella, sister of Charles V. He afterwards remonstrated with Henry VIII of England, on account of the piracies committed by the English ships, renewed the treaties which had been made with the grand-duke of Moscow, and endeavored to deprive the Hanse towns of their commerce. The hopes which this conduct excited among his subjects were soon annihilated by the horrible scenes caused by the death of Dyveke. The relations of Torbern Oxe, governor of the castle of Copenhagen, were accused of having poisoned her. Oxe acknowledged a former passion for her, and the king ordered him to be beheaded. Several other executions spread horror through the whole kingdom. Christian hated the nobility, and protected the commons and the peasantry against their oppressions. In 1516, a papal legate arrived in the North, in order to dispose of indulgences. Christian received him, hoping that he might be useful to him in Sweden, in obtaining the crown, at which he was then aiming. The Swedes were divided into several parties. Gustavus Trolle, archbishop of Upsal, a sworn enemy of Stenon Sture, administrator of the kingdom, had secretly united himself with Christian; but the Swedish states protected Sture, dismissed Trolle, and caused his castle to be demolished. The nuncio, who arrived during these events in Sweden, was gained over by Sture, discovered to him the plans of Christian, and justified the Swedes to the pope against the charges of Trolle. Christian finally arrived at Stockholm in 1518, for the sake of an interview with the administrator, receiving, for his own

security, six hostages from the first families. When these hostages, among whom was Gustavus Vasa, arrived at the Danish fleet, the faithless monarch treated them as prisoners, and returned to Denmark. He appeared in Sweden, in 1520, in the middle of winter, at the head of an army. The Swedes were beaten at Bogesund, Jan. 19, and Sture was mortally wounded. The Danes pursued their advantage. Trolle presided over the assembly of the states-general at Upsal, and proposed to them to acknowledge Christian for their king. Although many were disinclined to the union, they were, nevertheless, obliged to submit to it. A general amnesty was proclaimed, and all hastened to profit by it. The capital, to which the widow of the administrator had repaired, offered some resistance. As soon as the sea was open, Christian appeared with his fleet before Stockholm, which did not surrender to him. The summer was passing away; his provisions were nearly exhausted; his troops murmured. At last, he resolved to send Swedish messengers to the inhabitants. His promises, aided by famine, effected what his arms had not been able to accomplish. The gates were opened to him. He promised to maintain the liberty of Sweden, and to forget the past. He arrived at Stockholm near the end of October, demanded from the bishops and senators an act acknowledging him as their hereditary king, and caused himself to be crowned, two days after, by Trolle. He bestowed the honor of knighthood only on foreigners, and declared that he would confer this dignity on no Swedish subject, because he had conquered the country by force of arms. In spite of the general consternation, he ordered public rejoicings, during which he knew how to gain the favor of the multitude. He determined to strengthen the royal authority in Sweden, and to effect his purpose by the annihilation of the first families. His advisers differed only as to the means. Finally, Slaghoek, the king's confessor, reminded him of the excommunication of the enemies of Trolle, and added, that, though, as a prince, he might forget the past, he ought to extirpate the heretics, in obedience to the commands of the pope. Accordingly, Trolle demanded the punishment of the heretics; the king appointed commissioners before whom the accused appeared. Christina, the widow of the administrator, was among them. To vindicate her husband's memory, she produced the decree of the senate passed in 1517. Christian

obtained possession of it, and formed from it his list of proscriptions. The accused were declared guilty, and 94 victims were executed in the presence of the king. These bloody scenes continued in the capital as well as in the provinces. Christian justified himself by the public declaration, that they were necessary for the tranquillity of the kingdom. He then returned to Denmark. His way was marked with blood: he garrisoned all the cities, and committed the same cruelties in Denmark. He soon after went to the Netherlands, to request the assistance of Charles V against Frederic, duke of Holstein, his uncle, and against the inhabitants of Lűbeck, who were always ready to assist the Swedes. On his return to Copenhagen, he found all Sweden in arms. Slaghoek's tyranny had excited a general revolt. Christian gave him the archbishopric of Lund, but soon after caused him to be burnt alive, in order to appease the pope, who had sent a legate to Denmark, to examine into the murder of the bishops at Stockholm. In order to reconcile the pope, he altered every thing in the laws which favored Lutheranism, for which he had previously shown much inclination. Meanwhile Gustavus Vasa escaped from prison, and raised his standard against the Danes. The states-general, assembled at Wadstena, declared that Christian had forfeited the Swedish crown. The garrison of Stockholm revolted on account of the want of pay. Christian, exasperated by these events, ordered the Danish governors to execute all the rebels. This measure hastened his ruin. Norby still held Stockholm, Calmar and Abo, three places which were considered as the keys of the kingdom; but he was soon harassed by the inhabitants of Lübeck, who even made an attack upon the coasts of Denmark. Christian, to revenge himself, commenced negotiations with the duke of Holstein, but they were soon interrupted by his own violence. Meanwhile, he published two codes restricting the privileges of the clergy, and extending the rights of the peasantry. They contained many wise laws, which are still in force, but mixed with others which caused general discontent. The nation complained of the debasement of the currency, and the insupportable burthen of the taxes. The bishops and senators of Jutland, perceiving the disposition of the people, formed the plan of revolting against the king. About the end of 1522, they renounced their allegiance, declared Christian to have forfeited his rights, and offered

the crown to Frederic, duke of Holstein. The king, who suspected their designs, summoned the nobility of Jutland to Čallundborg, in Zealand; and, as none obeyed the call, he summoned them anew in 1523, to Aarhuus, in Jutland, whither he repaired himself. His arrival compelled the conspirators to hasten the execution of their plans. They assembled in Viborg, and adopted two acts; by one of which they deposed the king, and by the other invited Frederic to take possession of the throne. A civil war was on the point of breaking out, when Christian abandoned his kingdom. In April, 1523, he left Denmark, and took the queen, his children, his treasures, and the archives of the kingdom, on board the fleet. A storm dispersed his ships, threw him upon the coast of Norway, and, after the greatest dangers, he reached Veere, in Zealand. Charles V contented himself with writing to forbid Frederic, the nobility of Jutland, and the city of Lübeck, to act against Christian. The latter had, meanwhile, raised an army and equipped a fleet, and landed at Opslo, in Norway, in 1531. But his troops suffered new losses. Being attacked in his camp by the Danish and Hanseatic fleet, he shut himself up in the city, and his vessels became a prey to the flames. Deprived of all resources, he proposed a treaty to the Danish generals, who finally granted him a safe conduct, permitting him to repair, in the Danish fleet, to Copenhagen, for the purpose of a personal interview with Frederic. In July, 1532, he arrived before Copenhagen. But Frederic rejected the treaty, and the senate ordered the imprisonment of Christian. He was accordingly conveyed to the castle of Sonderburg, in the island of Alsen. He there passed 12 years in the society, at first, of a dwarf, and afterwards of an old invalid, in a tower, the door of which was walled up. A stone table is still shown, around the edge of which is a line worn by the hand of Christian, whose sole exercise consisted in walking round it, with his hand resting on the surface. He was totally abandoned. When Christian III ascended the throne, in 1543, his condition was improved, by virtue of a treaty with Charles V. He lived, from 1546, at Callundborg, with a fixed income, and died at this place, Jan. 24, 1559. His wife, Christina, a professor of Lutheranism, faithfully shared his misfortunes until her death, in 1526. He had three children-John, who died at Ratisbon in 1532, at the age of 13 years; Dorothea, who married Frederic, the elector

palatine; and Christina, who married Francis Sforza, duke of Milan, and, after his death, Francis, duke of Lorraine. It ought not to be forgotten, that Christian's cruelty was, in some degree, owing to the insolence of the nobility, whose arrogance he was determined to repress.

CHRISTIAN VII, king of Denmark, born 1749, son of Frederic V and Louisa of England, succeeded his father, Jan. 13, 1766. In the same year, he married Caroline Matilda (q. v.), sister of George III of England. During his travels, in 1767-69, through Germany, Holland, England and France, he visited the most distinguished men of learning, the academies and literary societies, was made doctor of laws in Cambridge, and everywhere maintained the character of an affable and enlightened prince. At first, the count J. H. G. de Bernstorff, who had enjoyed the entire confidence of Frederic V, continued to preside over the affairs of the state. But, in 1770, Struensee (q. v.), the king's physician, who had gained an unlimited influence over him, and had also insinuated himself into the favor of the imprudent young queen, obtained this post. The reforms undertaken by this minister excited the hatred of the nobility and the discontent of the military. The ambitious queen dowager (Julia Maria of Brunswick, step-mother of Christian) had in vain endeavored to disunite Christian and his wife, in order to obtain the direction of affairs. She now formed a connexion with some malcontents, and succeeded, Jan. 16, 1772, in conjunction with them and her son, the hereditary prince Frederic (Christian's step-brother), in obtaining from the king, after a long resistance, an order for the imprisonment of his queen and Struensee, on pretence that they were conspiring the deposition of the king. From that time the guidance of affairs was in the hands of Julia and of her son Frederic. The king, whom disease had deprived of his reason, reigned only nominally. In 1784, the present king was placed, as regent, at the head of the government. (See Frederic VI.) Before the taking of the capital by the English, in 1807, Christian VII had been carried to Rendsburg, in Holstein, where he died, March 13, 1808. The queen, Caroline Matilda, after having been conducted to the castle of Cronborg, had been subjected to an examination as to her connexion with Struensee. She afterwards repaired to Celle, where she died in 1775. Christian had but two children, the present king, Frederic VI, and the princess Au

gusta, married to the late duke of Holstein-Augustenburg. (For an account of Struensee's fate, see the Mémoires de M. de Falckenskiold, major-general of the king of Denmark, published by Secretan, Paris, 1826.)

CHRISTIANIA; capital of the kingdom of Norway, seat of government, and the place where the storthing (Norwegian parliament) meet; lon. 10° 49′ E.; lat. 59° 53′ 46′′ N. It contains 1500 houses, and 11,040 inhabitants, is situated in the diocese of Christiania, or Aggerhuus, on the northern end of the bay of Christiansfiord, in a district where gardening is much pursued. Besides the suburbs, it contains Christiania Proper, built by king Christian IV, in 1624, on a regular plan, the Old City, or Opslo, and the citadel, Aggerhuus, which was demolished in 1815. Among the principal buildings are the royal palace, the new councilhouse, and the exchange. Since 1811, a university (Fredericia) has been established here, with a philological seminary, a botanical garden, an observatory, a library, collections of various kinds, 18 professors, and 200 students. Christiania also contains a military school, a bank, a commercial institute, an alum factory, &c. It has much trade, chiefly in lumber and iron. Its harbor is excellent. The value of the lumber annually exported is estimated at 810,000 guilders. În the vicinity are 136 sawing-mills, which furnish, annually, 20 millions of planks.

CHRISTIANITY; the religion instituted by Jesus Christ. Christianity, as it now exists in our minds, has received, from the influence of the priesthood, of national character, of the spirit of the time, and the thousand ways in which it has been brought into contact with politics and science, a quantity of impure additions, which we should first separate, in order to understand what it is in reality. There could be no better means of attaining a correct understanding of it, than to investigate, historically, the religious principles which Jesus himself professed, exhibited in his life, and labored to introduce into the world, if the investigator could avoid giving the coloring of his own views to his explanation of the records of the origin of Christianity. But the most honest inquirers have not entirely succeeded in so doing. Even the Christian theologians of the present age-less divided, in some countries, for instance, in Germany, by the spirit of creeds and sects, than by the difference of scientific methods and philosophical speculations dispute respect

ing the principle that constitutes the basis of the religion of Christ, which, in other respects, has been unanimously adopted. (See the articles Religion, Revelation, Rationalism, and Supernaturalism.) This principle appears, by its effect upon the numerous nations, differing so greatly in intellectual character and cultivation, which received Christianity at first, to have been a universal truth, adapted to the whole human race, and of a divine, all-uniting power. The Jews believed in a living God, the Creator of all things, and, so far, had just views of the source of religion. The Greeks, besides developing the principle of the beautiful in their works of art, had laid the foundations of valuable sciences applicable to the business of life. The Romans had established the principles of law and political administration, and proved their value by experience. These scattered elements of moral and intellectual cultivation, insufficient, in their disunited state, to bring about the true happiness and moral perfection of man, in his social and individual capacity, were refined, perfected and combined by Christianity, through the law of a pure benevolence, the highest aim of which is that of rendering men good and happy, like God, and which finds, in the idea of a kingdom of heaven upon earth, announced and realized by Christ, all the means of executing its design. His religion supplied what was wanting to these nations-a religious character to the science of Greece, moral elevation to the legislative spirit of Rome, liberty and light to the devotion of the Jews-and, by inculcating the precept of universal love of mankind, raised the narrow spirit of patriotism to the extended feeling of general philanthropy. Thus the endeavors of ancient times after moral perfection were directed and concentrated by Christianity, which supplied, at the same time, a motive for diffusing more widely that light and those advantages which mystery and the spirit of castes had formerly withheld from the multitude. It conveyed the highest ideas, the most important truths and principles, the purest laws of moral life, to all ranks; it proved the possibility of perfect virtue, through the example of its Founder; it laid the foundation for the peace of the world, through the doctrine of the reconciliation of men with God and with each other; and, directing their minds and hearts towards Jesus, the Author and Finisher of their faith, the crucified, arisen and glorified Mediator between heaven

and earth, it taught them to discern the benevolent connexion of the future life with the present. The history of Jesus, and the preparations of God for his mission, afforded the materials from which Christians formed their conceptions of the character and tendency of their religion. The first community of the followers of Jesus was formed at Jerusalem, soon after the death of their Master. Another, at Antioch, in Syria, first assumed (about 65) the name of Christians, which had originally been given to them by their adversaries, as a term of reproach; and the travels of the apostles spread Christianity through the provinces of the Roman empire. Palestine, Syria, Natolia, Greece, the islands of the Mediterranean, Italy, and the northern coast of Africa, as early as the 1st century, contained societies of Christians. Their ecclesiastical discipline was simple, and conformable to their humble condition, and they continued to acquire strength amidst all kinds of oppressions. (See Persecutions.) At the end of the 2d century, Christians were to be found in all the provinces, and, at the end of the 3d century, almost one half of the inhabitants of the Roman empire, and of several neighboring countries, professed this belief. The endeavor to preserve a unity of faith (see Orthodoxy) and of church discipline, caused numberless disputes among those of different opinions (see Heretics and Sects), and led to the establishment of an ecclesiastical tyranny, notwithstanding the oppressions which the first Christians had experienced from a similar institution-the Jewish priesthood. At the beginning of the 4th century, when the Christians obtained toleration by means of Constantine the Great, and, soon after, the superiority in the Roman empire, the bishops exercised the power of arbiters of faith, in the first general council (see Nice), 325, by instituting a creed binding on all Christians. Upon this foundation, the later councils (q. v.), assisted by those writers who are honored by the church as its fathers and teachers (see Fathers of the Church, Jerome, Ambrose, Augustine, &c.), erected the edifice of the orthodox system; while the superior portion of the ecclesiastics, who were now transformed into priests, and elevated above the laity as a privileged, sacred order (see Clergy and Priests), were enabled, partly by their increasing authority in matters of church discipline, partly by the belief, which they had encouraged, that certain traditions from the apostles were inherited by them only (see Tradi

tions), to preserve the prerogatives at first granted them out of love and gratitude, but afterwards much extended by themselves, and to make themselves, gradually, masters of the church. (See Bishops, Patriarchs, Popes, Hierarchy.) Their views were promoted by the favor of the emperors (see Theodosius the Great) (with slight interruptions in the reign of Julian and some of his successors), by the increased splendor and various ceremonials of divine worship (see Mass, Saints, Relics, Iconoclasts), by the decline of classical learning, the increasing superstition resulting from this increase of ignorance, and by the establishment of convents and monks. (See Convents.) In this form, appealing to the senses more than to the understanding, Christianity, which had been introduced among the Goths in the 4th century, was spread among the other Teutonic nations in the west and north of Europe, and subjected to its power, during the 7th and 8th centuries, the rude warriors who founded new kingdoms on the ruins of the Western Empire, while it was losing ground, in Asia and Africa, before the encroachments of the Saracens, by whose rigorous measures hundreds of thousands of Christians were converted to Mohammedanism, the heretical sects which had been disowned by the orthodox church (see Jacobites, Copts, Armenians, Maronites, Nestorians) being almost the only Christians who maintained themselves in the East. During this progress of Mohammedanism, which, in Europe, extended only to Spain and Sicily, the Roman popes (see Popes and Gregory VII), who were advancing systematically to ecclesiastical superiority in the west of Europe, gained more in the north, and, soon after, in the east of this quarter of the world, by the conversion of the Sclavonic and Scandinavian nations (from the 10th to the 12th century), than they had lost in other regions. For the Mohammedans had chiefly overrun the territory of the Eastern church (see Greek Church), which had been, since the 5th century, no longer one with the Western (Latin) church, and had, by degrees, become entirely separate from it. In the 10th century, it received some new adherents, by the conversion of the Russians, who are now its most powerful support. But the crusaders, who were led, partly by religious enthusiasm, partly by the desire of conquest and adventures (1096-1150), to attempt the recovery of the holy sepulchre, gained the new kingdom of Jerusalem, not for the Greek emperor, but for themselves and