the papal hierarchy. (See Crusades.) The confusion which this finally unsuccessful undertaking introduced into the civil and domestic affairs of the western nations, gave the church a favorable opportunity of increasing its possessions, and asserting its pretensions to universal monarchy. But, contrary to the wishes and expectations of the rulers of the church, the remains of ancient heresies (see Manichæans, Paulicians) were introduced into the West, through the increased intercourse of nations, and by the returning crusaders, and new and more liberal ideas were propagated, springing from the philosophical spirit of examination of some schoolmen (see Abelard, Arnold of Brescia), and the indignation excited by the corruptions of the clergy. These kindled an opposition among all the societies and sects against the Roman hierarchy. (See Cathari, Albigenses, Waldenses.) The foundation and multiplication of ecclesiastical orders (q. v.), particularly the Franciscans and Dominicans, for the care of souls and the instruction of the people, which had been neglected by the secular priests, did not remedy the evil, because they labored, in general, more actively to promote the interests of the church and the papacy, than to remove superstition and ignorance; and bold speculations, which would not yield to their persuasion, were still less likely to be extirpated by the power of the inquisition (q. v.), which armed itself with fire and sword. The great difference of the Christian religion, as it was then taught and practised, from the religion of Jesus Christ, the insufficiency of what the church taught to the religious wants of the human mind and heart, was apparent to many, partly from their knowledge of the spirit of Jesus, derived from the Bible, which was already studied, in secret, by curious readers, in spite of the prohibitions of the church, and partly from the bold eloquence of single teachers and chiefs of sects. Ecclesiastical orders also desired to pursue their own course (see Knights Templars, Franciscans); offended princes forgot the great services of the papal power in promoting the cultivation of nations in the first centuries of the middle ages; and the popes themselves made little effort to reform or conceal the corruption of their court and of the clergy. They even afforded the scandalous spectacle of a schism in the church (see Schism, Popes, and Antipope), which was distracted, after 1378, for more than 30 years, by the quarrels between two candidates, who both asserted their 15

VOL. III.

right to the papal chair. This dispute was settled only by the decrees of the council of Constance (1414—1418), which were very unfavorable to the papal power. The doctrines of the English Wickliffe (q. v.) had already given rise to a party opposed to the popedom; and the revolt of the adherents of the Bohemian reformer (see Huss, Hussites), who was burnt at Constance on account of similar doctrines, extorted from the council of Bâle (1431 -43) certain compacts, which, being firmly maintained, proved to the friends of a reformation in the head and members of the church (proposed, but without success, at the council of Bâle), what a firm and united opposition to the abuses of the Roman church might be able to effect. We refer the reader to the article Reformation, and the articles relating to it, for a history of the causes, progress and consequences of this great event. But that this great change in the church has revived primitive Christianity in the spirit of its Founder, the most zealous Protestants will not assert, any more than the reflecting Catholic will deny the necessity of such a reform, and the real merits of Protestantism in promoting it. (See Trent, Council of, Roman Catholic Church, and Protestantism.) The forms under which Christianity appears, in our days, are very different. The example of the south of Europe proves how easily this religion naturalizes itself, but, also, how much it loses, under the influence of sensuality and an over-active fancy, of the simple grandeur, the moral power and pure spirit of its original character. Protestantism removed from the northern nations many of the burdens with which the predominance of the earthly nature had oppressed the spirit of religion. By opening the Bible to all, it aroused the spirit of inquiry, but also gave rise to an immense variety of sects, springing from the different views which different men were led to form from the study of the sacred volume. The present moral and political condition of Christian Europe, though affected by so many influences foreign to religion, bears the stamp of a cultivation springing from Christianity, and this has been impressed upon its colonies in distant lands, among which the U. States of North America alone have advanced to the principle of universal toleration. But if we look among our contemporaries for Christianity as it dwelt and operated in Christ, we shall find it pure in no nation and in no religious party; but we perceive its features in the conduct of the enlight

ened and pious among all nations, who love Christ, and are penetrated with his Spirit. How Christianity will develope itself in North America, where all sects are tolerated, what will be the result of this immense variety of opinions and creeds, is, as yet, a matter of speculation. The general views of the great body of Protestant sects in this country, however, have so much in common, that they may still be considered as forming one great family among the principal divisions of the Christian world. Whether this will be true after a considerable time has elapsed, is at least doubtful, as the Unitarians and Trinitarians seem to be taking essentially different directions.

CHRISTIANS; the general name of the followers of Christ. (See Christianity.)

CHRISTIANS; the name of a denomination, in the U. States, adopted to express their renunciation of all sectarianism. They have become numerous in all parts of the country, the number of their churches, in 1827, being estimated at about 1000. Each church is an independent body: they recognise no creed, no authority in matters of doctrine: the Scriptures, which every individual must interpret for himself, are their only rule of faith: admission to the church is obtained by a simple profession of belief in Christianity: speculative belief they treat as of little importance, compared with virtue of character. In New England, they separated principally from the Calvinistic Baptists; in the Southern States, from the Methodists; and in the Western, from the Presbyterians. There was, therefore, at first, a great diversity of opinion and practice among them, each church retaining some of the peculiarities of the sect from which it seceded. In New England, the churches were established on the principle of close communion, which was soon abandoned. In the South and West, they were Pedobaptists, but have since become Baptists. Nearly all were, at first, Trinitarians; but the doctrine of the Trinity, and its concomitant doctrines, are now universally rejected by them. To maintain a connexion between the different churches, one or more conferences are formed in each state, consisting of members delegated from each church. In 1827, there were 23 of these conferences, which again form, by delegation, the United States General Christian Conference. They have several periodical works (Christian Herald, Portsmouth, N. H.; Gospel Luminary, N. Y.; Christian Messenger, Ky.), but no theological seminary, considering that

whoever understands the gospel may teach it. They consider Christ as the Son of God, miraculously conceived, whose death was a ratification of the new covenant, not a propitiatory sacrifice; and the Holy Ghost or Spirit as the power or energy of God, exerted in converting the wicked and strengthening the good.

CHRISTIANS OF ST. THOMAS; the name of a sect of Christians on the coast of Malabar, in the East Indies, to which region the apostle St. Thomas is said to have carried the gospel. They belong to those Christians who, in the year 499, united to form a Syrian and Chaldaic church in Central and Eastern Asia, and are, like them, Nestorians. (See Syrian Christians.) They have, however, retained rather more strongly than the latter the features of their descent from the earliest Christian communities. Like these, they still celebrate the agapes, or love-feasts, portion maidens from the property of the church, and provide for their poor. Their notions respecting the Lord's supper incline to those of the Protestants, but, in celebrating it, they use bread with salt and oil. At the time of baptism, they anoint the body of the infant with oil. These two ceremonies, together with the consecration of priests, are the only sacraments which they acknowledge. Their priests are distinguished by the tonsure, are allowed to marry, and were, until the 16th century, under a Nestorian patriarch at Babylon, now at Mosul, from whom they received their bishop, and upon whom they are also dependent for the consecration of their priests. Their churches contain, except the cross, no symbols nor pictures. Their liturgy is similar to the Syrian, and the Syrian language is used in it. When the Portuguese occupied the East Indies, the Roman Catholic clergy endeavored to subject the Christians of St. Thomas to the government of the pope. The archbishop of Goa succeeded, in 1599, in persuading them to submit, and form a part of his diocese. They were obliged to renounce the Nestorian faith, adopt a few Catholic ceremonies, and obey a Jesuit, who became their bishop. But, after the Portuguese were supplanted by the Dutch on the coast of Malabar, this union of the Christians of St. Thomas with the Roman church ceased, and they returned to their old forms. At present, they are, under the British government, free from any ecclesiastical restraint, and form among themselves a kind of spiritual republic, under a bishop chosen by themselves, and

a

in which the priests and elders administer justice, using excommunication as means of punishment. In their political relations to the natives, they belong to the class of the Nairi, or nobility of the second rank, are allowed to ride on elephants, and to carry on commerce and agriculture, instead of practising mechanical trades, like the lower classes. Travellers describe them as very ignorant, but, at the same time, of very good morals.

CHRISTIANSAND; a government and bishopric of Norway, occupying the S. W. part of the country. The population of this division of the kingdom is estimated at 134,000; square miles, 14,800. Though one of the most fertile parts of the country, the grain produced is not adequate to the consumption of the inhabitants, and grain is therefore one of the chief imports. The inhabitants are principally employed in the fisheries and in cutting trees. Timber forms the chief article of their exports.-The capital is also called Christiansand, and is situated on the S. coast. The streets are broad and straight, and the houses have extensive gardens. It is considered as the fourth town in the kingdom. It contains about 5000 inhabitants. Its harbor is one of the best in Norway. It derives some support from the trade in timber, but depends chiefly on the repair of vessels which put in there to refit. Lon. 8° 3′ E.; lat. 58° 8' N.

CHRISTIANS-OE, or ERT-HOLM; a group of islands, in the Baltic, belonging to Denmark, named from the chief island, which has a much-frequented port, a light-house and a castle; lon. 14° 47′ E.; lat. 55° 13' N.

CHRISTINA, queen of Sweden, born Dec. 9, 1626, daughter of Gustavus Adolphus and the princess Maria Eleonore of Brandenburg, was distinguished for beauty, and taste for the liberal arts. Gustavus, who beheld in Christina the only support of his throne, took the greatest care of her education, which was conducted in a masculine manner. She was instructed in all the sciences adapted to improve her mind and strengthen her character. After the death of Gustavus, at Lützen, in 1632, the states-general appointed guardians to the queen Christina, then but six years old. These were the five highest officers of the crown, who were intrusted, at the same time, with the administration of the kingdom. The education of Christina was continued according to the plan of Gustavus Adolphus. Endowed with a lively imagination, a

good memory, and uncommon intelligence, she made the most rapid progress. She learned the ancient languages, history, geography, politics, and renounced the pleasures of her age in order to devote herself entirely to study. She already betrayed those peculiarities which characterized her whole life, and which were, perhaps, as much the consequence of her education as of her natural disposition. She did not like to appear in the female dress, made long journeys on foot or on horseback, and delighted in the fatigues and even the dangers of the chase. She submitted reluctantly to the customs of the court, alternately treating those who surrounded her with the greatest familiarity and with haughtiness or commanding dignity. She honored the chancellor Oxenstiern as a father, and learned from him the art of governing. She soon showed, in the assembly of the states, a maturity of understanding which astonished her guardians. In 1642, the statesgeneral proposed to her to take the administration into her own hands; but she excused herself on the ground of her youth. Only two years after, she took upon herself the government. A great talent for business, and great firmness of purpose, distinguished her first steps. She terminated the war with Denmark, begun in 1644, and obtained several provinces by the treaty concluded at Brömsebro, in 1645. She then, contrary to the advice of Oxenstiern, who hoped to gain, by the continuance of the war, still greater advantages for Sweden, labored to reestablish peace in Germany, in order to be able to devote herself uninterruptedly to the sciences and the arts of peace. Christina was fitted, by her talents and the circumstances in which she was placed, to play the most distinguished part in the North of Europe, and, for some time, seemed sensible of the charms of her lofty station. On many occasions, she maintained the dignity of her crown and the honor of her country. France, Spain, Holland and England sought her friendship. She promoted commerce by wise legislation, and patronised the learned and literary institutions. The nation was devoted to her, and rejoiced to see the daughter of Gustavus at the head of the government, surrounded by generals and statesmen formed by that great prince. It was the universal wish that the queen should choose a husband; but her love of independence rendered her averse to such a connexion. Among the princes who sued for her hand, her cousin, Charles Gustavus of

Deuxponts, was distinguished for his intelligence, noble character, and extensive knowledge. She declined his offer, but induced the states-general, in 1649, to designate him for her successor. In 1650, she caused herself to be crowned, with great pomp, and with the title of king. From that time, a striking change in her conduct was perceptible. She neglected her ancient ministers, and listened to the advice of ambitious favorites. Intrigues and base passions succeeded to her former noble and useful views. The public treasure was squandered with extravagant profusion. Distinctions were conferred upon the undeserving, and jealousy produced murmurs, complaints and factions. In this state of confusion, the queen declared her intention of abdicating the crown. The old ministers, honoring the memory of Gustavus Adolphus, remonstrated in the strongest terms, and, above all, Oxenstiern expressed himself with so much energy, that the queen desisted from her resolution. She now grasped with more firmness the reins of government, and dissipated, for a time, the clouds which had darkened her throne. She occupied herself again with study, bought paintings, medals, manuscripts, books, maintained a correspondence with many learned men, and invited several to her court. Descartes, Grotius, Salmasius, Bochart, Huet, Chevreau, Naudé, Vossius, Conring, Meibom, appeared in Stockholm, and the queen conversed familiarly with them on literary and philosophical subjects. Among the literary amusements which she united with serious studies, was the Grecian dance, which she caused to be exhibited by Meibom (q. v.) and Naudé. But new troubles occurred; and the conspiracy of Messenius threatened not only the favorites of the queen, but the queen herself. Christina, who loved whatever was uncommon, resumed the determination to resign the crown. In 1654, at the age of 29, she assembled the states-general at Upsal, and, in their presence, laid aside the insignia of royalty, to surrender them into the hands of prince Charles Gustavus. She reserved to herself a certain income, entire independence, and full power over her suite and household. A few days after, she left Sweden, and went through Denmark and Germany to Brussels, where she made a public entry, and remained for some time. There she made a secret profession of the Catholic religion, which she afterwards publicly confirmed in Inspruck-a step which excited great astonishment, and of

the causes of which nothing certain is known. Christina went from Inspruck to Rome, which she entered on horseback, in the costume of an Amazon, with great pomp. When the pope Alexander VII confirmed her, she adopted the surname of Alessandra. She visited the monuments of the city, and attentively examined every thing which could awaken historical recollections. In 1656, she visited France, and remained at Fontainebleau, at Compiegne, where the court was then held, and at Paris. Her dress and manners produced an unfavorable impression, but her talents and knowledge were generally admired. She offered to mediate between France and Spain; but Mazarin declined the offer, and succeeded in accelerating her departure from France, under various pretexts. In the following year, she returned. This second residence in France was rendered remarkable by the execution of her grand equerry, Monaldeschi, who had enjoyed her entire confidence, but whom she accused of treason. This act of vengeance, though defended by Leibnitz, is a stain on the memory of Christina. The French court testified its displeasure, and two months passed before the queen showed herself publicly in Paris. In 1658, she returned to Rome, where she received very unpleasing news from Sweden. Her revenue was not transmitted to her, and nobody would make her advances. Alexander VII relieved her from this embarrassment by a pension of 12,000 scudi (dollars). After the death of Charles Gustavus, in 1660, the queen made a visit to Sweden, under pretence of wishing to arrange her private affairs; but it was soon perceived that she had other views. As the crownprince was very young, she declared, that, in case of his death, she should lay claim to the throne. This project was unfavorably received, and she was compelled to sign a formal act of abdication. Other unpleasant eircumstances induced her to abandon Stockholm. She visited Sweden a second time in 1666, but returned to Hamburg without reaching the capital, having heard that the public exercise of her religion would not be allowed her. About this time, she aspired to the Polish crown, but the Poles took no notice of her wishes. Finally, she returned to Italy, where she passed the remainder of her life, at Rome, in the cultivation of the arts and sciences. She founded an academy, collected valuable manuscripts, medals and paintings, and died, after having experienced many vexations, April 19, Ï689.

She was interred in the church of St. Peter, and the pope erected a monument to her with a long inscription. She had asked only for these few words: Vixit Christina annos LXIII. Her principal heir was the cardinal Azzolini, her intendant. Her library was bought by pope Alexander VIII, who placed 900 manuscripts of this collection in the Vatican, and gave the remainder of the books to his family. Odescalchi, the nephew of Innocent XI, purchased the paintings and antiquities. The duke of Orleans, regent of France, bought a part of the paintings for 90,000 scudi, in 1722. The value of these collections may be learned from the two works which give a description of them, namely, Havercamp's Nummophylacium Regina Christina, and the Museum Odescalcum. The life of Christina presents a series of inconsistencies and contradictions: we see, on one side, magnanimity, frankness, mildness; on the other, vanity, severity, revenge and dissimulation. Her knowledge of the world, her acuteness and penetration, did not preserve her from visionary projects, from the dreams of alchemy and astrology, and other illusions. She left some small works, in which her character and manner of thinking are perceptible, and which, for the most part, are contained in Archenholz's Memoirs of this princess (1751, 4 vols. 4to.). The authenticity of the letters which appeared in 1762, under her name, is not proved.

CHRISTMAS, the feast of Christ's birth, was, according to many critics, not celebrated in the first centuries of the Christian church, as the Christian usage, in general, was, to celebrate the death of remarkable persons rather than their birth. The death of the martyr Stephen, and the massacre of the innocents at Bethlehem, had been already long celebrated, when, perhaps in opposition to the doctrine of the Manichæans respecting the birth of the Savior, a feast was established, in memory of this event, in the 4th century. In the 5th century, the Western church ordered it to be celebrated for ever on the day of the old Roman feast of the birth of Sol, on the 25th of December, though no information respecting the day of Christ's birth existed. In the East, Christmas was celebrated on the 6th of January. From the gospel of St. Luke, it was known that Christ was born during the night, and therefore divine service was performed in the night of Dec. 24-25, from which circumstance Christmas is called, in German, Weihnachten, i. e. Holy

or Consecrated Night. The feasts of the martyr Stephen and the evangelist St. John were united with it, and a feast of three days' continuance was thus formed. In the ecclesiastical year, this festival gives name to a period extending from the first Sunday of Advent to the feast of Epiphany, Jan. 6. Some say that Christmas has always been celebrated in the church. In the Catholic church, three masses are performed-one at midnight, one at daybreak, and one in the morning. In the Greek and Roman churches, the manger, the holy family, &c., are sometimes represented at large. Some convents in Rome, chiefly the Franciscans, are famous for attracting many people by such exhibitions. The church of England celebrates this feast, as do the great body of European Protestants. In the U. States, it is little regarded, except by the Episcopalians. The custom of making presents on Christmas-eve is derived from an old heathen usage, practised at the feast of the birth of Sol, or, in Germany, on the occasion of some feast peculiar to that country (at least the Ruprecht seems to have had such an origin); but it has become consecrated by ages, and contributes a great deal to make this festival an interesting event to families. In the north of Germany, this custom prevails most, pervading all the classes and relations of society. In some German churches, sermons are delivered on Christmas-eve for the benefit of children, who attend, carrying each a little taper. In the Catholic church, the officium pastorum is sung in which a chorus of children respond to the priest.

CHRISTOPHE, Henri, king of Hayti, was born Oct. 6, 1767, in the island of Grenada, as stated by some, but, as others say, in that of St. Christopher. According to the latter account, he was carried to St. Domingo, at the age of twelve, sold as a slave, and employed by his new master in the business of a cook, which calling he exercised at the Cape. Others relate that, after having served in the American war, and received a wound at the siege of Savannah, he went to St. Domingo, and was employed on the plantation of Limonade, in the capacity of an overseer, wherein he displayed his characteristic severity. From the commencement of the troubles among the blacks, he took a decided part in favor of independence, and signalized himself by his energy, boldness and activity, in many bloody engagements. ToussaintLouverture, the acknowledged chief of the blacks, at length gave him the com