mission of brigadier-general, and employed him to suppress an insurrection headed by his nephew Moyse. This object was speedily accomplished by Christophe, who made himself master of the person of Moyse, and succeeded him as governor of the province of the North. The execution of Moyse excited new troubles at the Cape, which the activity and intrepidity of Christophe completely suppressed. He commanded there in 1802, when Leclerc arrived with a French army, destined for the subjugation of the Negroes. Most of them, deceived by the promises of Leclerc, at first gave way to his designs; but Dessalines and Christophe resisted from the beginning, and were declared outlaws. Christophe was compelled to make his peace, but resumed arms again upon the perfidious seizure of the person of Toussaint. The climate aided the heroic efforts of Dessalines and Christophe, and, at the close of 1805, there was no longer a French force in Hayti,-for so the island was now denominated by the insurgent chiefs. During the short-lived government of Dessalines, Christophe was general-in-chief of the Haytian army; and, being the senior officer, and most distinguished among the blacks, possessed, of course, powerful claims to succeed him in authority. But the popularity of Petion in the South balanced that of Christophe in the North. In February, 1807, an assembly convened at the Cape appointed Christophe president for life of the state of Hayti; and, about the same time, a republic was organized at Port-auPrince, with Petion at its head. A civil war between the two chiefs ensued, but did not prevent Christophe from taking judicious measures to establish public order in the territory which he governed. He organized the administration, the tribunals, the marine, and the army, made suitable regulations for the encouragement of agriculture, commerce, and other branches of industry among his people, and, by his energy, attained the most flattering results. His military force was placed on a respectable footing, and his finances were brought into a flourishing condition. He constructed fortifications, and was enabled to set the French at defiance. Following the example of Napoleon, whom he imitated, he abolished the republican forms, March 28, 1811, and was proclaimed king of Hayti, by the name of Henri I. The dignity and title were made hereditary in his family; a hereditary nobility was created, to give lustre and strength to the new institutions,

with an appropriate order of knighthood; and, to complete the imitation of feudal sovereignties, he was solemnly crowned at the Cape, June 2, 1812, with the ceremonies customary in Europe. He also sought to perpetuate his name by the compilation of the Code Henri-a digest founded upon the Code Napoléon, but not servilely copied. On the contrary, it was judiciously adapted to the situation of Hayti. In 1813, some cases of defection occurred among his subjects, which tended to exasperate the violent and suspicious temper of Christophe, and prompted him to impolitic acts of cruelty. In 1814, he and Petion suspended hostilities, not by a formal agreement, but, as it were, by tacit consent. For several years in succession, after this, the efforts of the French to regain their authority in the island gave a new turn to the policy of Christophe's government. He constantly refused to hear any proposition from the ex-colonists, short of an acknowledgment of the unqualified independence of the island; and he adopted the most decided measures to counteract the attempts made by France. Beside his military preparations for defence against aggression, he multiplied, through the agency of the press, writings calculated to render the views of the ex-colonists odious, and to maintain the spirit of independence among the emancipated blacks. To further the same object, he conceived, and, at one period, seriously set about effecting, the plan of substituting the English language in the island in place of the French; his intercourse with the English and American merchants having communicated to him a partiality for their language. This project entered into a system of general education, which he devised for the Haytians. Things continued to proceed in this way until the death of Petion, in 1818, and the accession of Boyer. Discontents had increased, meanwhile, among the subjects of Christophe, who contrasted the mild and easy rule of Boyer with the iron despotism under which they groaned; and the army itself was ripe for a change. Insurrection began among the garrison of St. Marc, which mutinied in a body, killed the governor of the town, and sent a deputation to Boyer, signifying their desire to join the republic. Boyer hastily assembled a force of 15,000 men, and marched to the support of the insurgent garrison. At this time, Christophe was confined, by illness, in his fortified palace of Sans Souci, where he commonly resided. The insurrection soon spread to the Cape, where Richard, duc de Marmalade,

and one of the first dignitaries of the kingdom, proclaimed the abolition of royalty at the head of the troops. The élite of Christophe's army, composing his guard of about 1500 men, continued faithful to him for a while, but, when marched up to oppose the insurgents from the Cape, joined with the latter in demanding the deposition of Christophe. Perceiving his case to be desperate, and resolved not to gratify the insurgents by becoming their prisoner, Christophe shot himself with a pistol, October 8, 1820. His corpse remained exposed several days on the highway, and his oldest son was massacred; but Boyer protected his widow and daughters from injury, and enabled them to retire to Europe in the possession of a competent fortune. A large treasure was found in fort Henri, which Christophe had amassed from the customs on merchandise. His palace was dismantled by the populace, who seemed to take pleasure in defacing what had cost them so much toil to construct. Thus ended a reign, from which the friends of the blacks anticipated much and with justice. Christophe's policy was probably better calculated than that of Petion and Boyer to advance the prosperity of Hayti. Agriculture and commerce flourished under him, and declined under the latter; but, his government being purely a military despotism, in which he himself was every thing, and the wishes of his people were totally disregarded, the administration degenerated into a system of tyranny which proved insupportable. (An. Necrol., 1821; Franklin's Hayti; Malo, His. d'Hayti.)

CHRISTOPHER, duke of Wurtemberg; born in 1515; one of the wisest rulers mentioned in history. His youth was a constant scene of adversity. When he was but four years old, the confederated Suabian cities expelled his father, the duke of Wurtemberg, from his dominions, and sold the dukedom to Austria. Christopher was brought to Vienna, and was hardly saved by his tutor, Tyfferni, from the hands of the Turks, when that city was besieged by Solyman. He was a second time preserved from captivity, by the same individual, in 1532, when Charles V intended to bury his person and his claims on Wurtemberg in a Spanish convent. Christopher had been conveyed almost to the frontiers of Spain, when he fled, and safely reached Bavaria, the duke of which was his uncle, and, together with Philip of Hesse, now commenced a war against Austria, to compel her to resign her claims to Wurtemberg. Francis I

supplied them with money to carry on the contest. The battle of Laufen, in 1534, restored the father of Christopher to the government of Wurtemberg. Christopher himself, whom his father disliked, went into the French service. After eight years, he was recalled. In 1550, his father died; but he could not consider himself securely possessed of the dukedom until 1552, when he immediately began to devote himself in every way to the improvement of his subjects. He reestablished the Lutheran religion, which had been prohibited during the interregnum, and, in so doing, gratified the wishes of his subjects. But he did not appropriate the possessions of convents, and other ecclesiastical establishments, to himself, as so many or most of the Protestant princes did, but formed out of it a great fund, called the Wurtembergian church property, to be used for supplying the wants of the church, and for other beneficent purposes. The Wurtembergian cloister schools, for the education of young clergymen, and the great theological seminary at Tübingen, are his work. He improved the schools, so that education in Wurtemberg, even at the present time, is, perhaps, in a more flourishing state than in any other part of the world. He extended the liberties of his subjects, and established a civil code, which still exists. At the same time, he was continually attentive to the state of Europe. The fate of Protestantism in Germany was a subject in which he took great interest. He had an interview with Catharine of Medicis and the Guises, in order to alleviate the fate of the Huguenots, and contributed much to the religious peace at Augsburg in 1555. He endeavored to unite the Protestant princes of Germany, and was intrusted with many highly honórable commissions by the empire. He ruled 18 years, and died in December, 1568; but lives still in the memory of the people of Wurtemberg, who regard him as the model of a ruler. J. C. Pfister has well described the life of Christopher.

CHRISTOPHER, St.; a saint whose name and worship are celebrated, but whose history is little known. He is reported to have been a native of Syria or Cilicia, who was baptized by St. Babylas, bishop of Antioch, and received the crown of martyrdom, in Asia Minor, about the middle of the third century. Relics of him are found in several places, principally in Spain. The Eastern church celebrates his festival on the 9th of May; the Western, on the 25th of July. His intercession was particularly sought in the time of the

plague. Christopher, or Christophel, literally means bearer of Christ. He is represented as a giant, bearing the child Jesus upon his shoulders through the sea, which refers to a legend of this saint. The St. Christopher of Hemmling is one of the finest pictures in the gallery of Boisserée. (q. v.)

CHRISTOPHER, St. (commonly called St. Kitt's); an island in the West Indies, belonging to Great Britain, discovered by Columbus in 1493, about 15 miles in length, and, in general, about 4 in breadth, but towards the eastern extremity, not more than 3. Between that part and the rest of the island is a strip of land 3 miles in length, which does not measure half a mile across. This island contains 43,726 acres, of which about 17,000 acres are appropriated to the growth of sugar, and 4000 to pasturage. As sugar is the only commodity of any consequence that is raised, except the necessary articles of food, and a little cotton, it is probable that nearly one half of the whole island is unfit for cultivation. The interior part of the country consists, indeed, of many rugged precipices and barren mountains. Of these the loftiest is mount Misery (evidently an extinguished volcano), which rises 3711 feet in perpendicular height from the sea. The general average produce of sugar for a series of years is 16,000 hogsheads of 16 cwt., which, as one half only of the whole cane land, or 8500 acres, is annually cut (the remainder being young canes), gives nearly two hogsheads of 16 cwt. per acre for the whole of the land in ripe canes. This island is divided into nine parishes, and contains four towns and hamlets, viz. Basseterre, the present capital, as it was formerly that of the French, containing about 800 houses, Sandy Point, Old Road and Deep Bay. Of these, the two first are ports of entry, established by law. The fortifications consist of Charles Fort and Brimstone Hill, both near Sandy Point, three batteries at Basseterre, one at Fig-tree Bay, another at Palmetto Point, and some smaller ones of no great importance. Population, in 1823 -4, according to Humboldt, 23,000, of whom 3500 were free persons, and 19,500 slaves. Official value of imports and exports :Exports. In 1809 £266,064. .132,845

1810

....

.....

Imports.

....

Lon. 62° 49′ W.; lat. 17° 19′ N.

89,362

CHROMATE OF IRON, or CHROMEISENSTEIN, is a mineral substance of very considerable interest, as affording one of the

most beautiful and durable pigments in the arts. It is found disseminated in grains and imperfectly crystallized masses,-occasionally in regular octoedral crystals, its primary form,-of a black color, a shining and somewhat metallic lustre. It scratches glass, is opaque, and has a specific gravity of 4.03. According to Vauquelin, that of France consists of 43 chromic acid, 34.7 oxide of iron, 20.3 alumine, silex 2. But chemists, at the present day, consider the chrome in this mineral in the state of an oxide, and not of an acid; accordingly the mineral is now more correctly denominated the ferruginous oxide of chrome. It is found in great abundance in Maryland, at the Bare hills, near Baltimore, and is contained in a steatitic or serpentine rock. It also occurs in small quantities at numerous other places in the U. States, and has many localities in other countries.

CHROMATIC, in music; one of the three ancient genera-diatonic, chromatic and enharmonic. The word chromatic has been adopted, as it is believed, because the Greeks were in the habit of designating this genus by characters of various colors, or, as some say, because the chromatic genus is a mean between the other two, as color is a mean between white and black (this seems to be a very poor explanation); or, lastly, because the chromatic genus, by its semitones, varies and embellishes the diatonic, thus producing an effect similar to that of coloring. In modern music, the word chromatic simply means a succession of semitones, ascending or descending. Thus the expressions chromatic semitone (the interval which is found between any given note and that same note raised by a sharp or lowered by a flat), chromatic scale, chromatic modulation, are terms in use.

CHROME; the name of a metal, which, combined with oxygen so as to be in the state of an acid, was discovered by Vauquelin, in an ore of lead from Siberia. This metal has since been found combined with iron in the U. States, and at Unst, one of the Shetland isles. It appears also to be the coloring principle of the emerald and the ruby, and has received its name from its property of assuming brilliant colors in the combinations into which it enters. Chrome, which has hitherto been procured in very small quantities, owing to its powerful attraction for oxygen, may be obtained by mixing the oxide of chrome with charcoal, and exposing the mixture to the most intense heat of a smith's forge. It is brittle, of a grayish-white color, and

very infusible. Its specific gravity is 5.9. Chrome unites with oxygen in three proportions, forming two oxides and one acid. The protoxide is of a green color, exceedingly infusible by itself, but with borax, or vitreous substances, it melts, and communicates to them a beautiful emeraldgreen color. Indeed, the emerald owes its color to this oxide. The protoxide is employed at the manufactory of Sèvres, in France, to give a fine deep-green to the enamel of porcelain. It is applied without a flux, and melted with the enamel. Chromic acid, however, is the most important of the compounds formed by this metal along with oxygen. It is usually prepared for chemical purposes by mixing solutions of nitrate of barytes and chromate of potash, and digesting the chromate of barytes that is formed in dilute sulphuric acid. This abstracts the barytes, and the chromic acid is procured, by evaporation, in crystals of a fine rubyred color. It is very soluble in water, has a sour, metallic taste, and all the characters of a strong acid. It combines with the alkalies, earths and metallic oxides, forming salts, many of which have very rich colors. The alkaline chromates are soluble and crystallizable. They are of a yellow or red color, the neutral chromates being commonly yellow, and the bi-chromates, red or deep orange. The best known of these is the bi-chromate of potash, which is one of the most splendid, and, at the same time, one of the most useful salts. The manner in which it is formed is as follows:-Chromate of iron, or rather ferruginous oxide of chrome, reduced to fine powder, is mixed with half its weight of nitrate of potash, and heated strongly for an hour or two in crucibles. The resulting masses are then repeatedly digested with water, and the colored liquids, which are slightly alkaline, saturated with nitric acid, and concentrated by evaporation, till no more crystals of nitre can be obtained from them. The yellow liquid, being now set aside for a week or two, deposits a copious crop of crystals, whose form is that of a four-sided prism, terminated by dihedral summits. Their color is an intense lemon-yellow, with a slight shade of orange. 100 parts of water at 60° dissolves about 48 parts; but boiling water dissolves almost any quantity. Its solution in water decomposes most of the metallic salts; those of mercury, of a fine red; copper and iron, of a reddish brown; silver, dark red, and lead, of a beautiful yellow color, now much used as a pigment, under the name of chrome yellow. Chrome

yellow is largely manufactured in the U. States, at Baltimore, near which place is found one of the most remarkable deposits of ferruginous oxide of chrome in the world. The process consists in adding a solution of acetate of lead (or sugar of lead) to the rough solution of chromate of potash, from which the nitrate of potash has been just separated by crystallization. The acetate of lead is added as long as any sediment falls. The liquid is then filtered, and the yellow precipitate left on the filters, dried for sale.

CHROMIC ACID. (See Chrome.)

CHRONIC (from xoóvos, time); a term applied to discases which are of long duration, and mostly without fever. It is used in opposition to the term acute, which is applied both to a pungent pain, and to a disease which is attended with violent symptoms, terminates in a few days, and is attended with danger. On the other hand, a chronic disease is slow in its progress, and not so generally dangerous.

CHRONICLE, strictly speaking, is a history digested according to the order of time. In this sense, it differs but little from annals. The term is mostly used in reference to the old histories of nations, written when they were comparatively rude. Chronicles belong to the sources of history, and many have been handed down from early ages; for instance, the two books of the Chronicles of the Hebrews, which belong to the Old Testament. With many nations, such chronicles were written under the authority of government, and priests, being the only men of learning among uncultivated_tribes, were intrusted with this office. In the early Christian ages, also, clergymen were generally the authors of the chronicles; e. g., Eusebius, bishop of Cæsarea, collected from other historical works his Chronicle of ancient history. Hieronymus of Stridon translated it into Latin, in the fourth century, and others continued it. Many historical works of the Byzantines (q. v.) are also chronicles. We might mention, likewise, the Alexandrine chronicle (Chronicon paschale), published by Du Fresne; also the chronicles written by monks, particularly by the diligent Benedictines, in the middle ages, some of which embraced the whole history of the world, from its beginning to their own time (as the Chronicle of Rhegino, of Otto of Freisingen, &c.); others, the history of a certain period (as Liutprand's History of his Time, from 891 to 946), or of a single nation (as the History of the Franks, by Gregory of Tours; that of the Lombards.

by Paulus Diaconus; the English Chronicles, by Stow, &c.), or the history of single provinces, cities and institutions (as the Chronicle of the Abbey of St. Denis; the Chronicle of Cologne); also the history of individuals (as Eginhard's History of Charlemagne), and of single events. They have been published partly in large collections (for instance, Scriptores Rerum Germanicarum), and, until the 13th and 14th centuries, were mostly written in Latin. Of many of them the authors are not known. In this case, they are called after the place where they were written or where they were found.

These chronicles bear the impression of their time, displaying the ignorance and credulity of their authors, and abounding in religious and moral reflections. We must admit, in their favor, however, that they are not filled with political disquisitions and superficial reasoning, of which modern histories afford so many instances. The chronicles of the middle ages were not written with the purpose of supporting certain principles, but generally give simple facts; on account of which they are preferable, as historical records, to many modern works. Of course, they do not equal in value the result of the deep researches of a Gibbon or a Niebuhr. Young men, in search of historical knowledge, ought to apply themselves more frequent ly to these sources, and not trust so much to the writers who drew from them; and we can say, from experience, that they would find them very interesting reading. (For information respecting the chronicles of the middle ages, we would refer the reader to the treatises by Rösler, in Latin, particularly the preface to his Chronica Medii Evi (1798), and the directories of Freher and Adelung.) Chronicle is also often used as the title of newspapers. The most important of these is the (London) Morning Chronicle, an excellent paper of the whig party. (See Newspaper.)

CHRONODISTICH, CHRONOGRAM; a verse in which certain of the letters used signify Roman numbers, and indicate the year in which the event happened to which the verse relates; e. g., reges ConCeDant paCeM, where CCDCM make the number 1800. It is little used at present.

CHRONOLOGY (Compounded of xovos, time, and Xoyos, discourse) is the art of measuring time (see Time), distinguishing its several constituent parts, such as centuries, years, &c., by appropriate marks and characters, and adjusting these parts, in an orderly manner, to past transactions, by means of eras, epochs and

cycles, for the illustration of history. The principal means for marking the divisions of time are afforded by the motions of the heavenly bodies, particularly the sun and the moon, which produce the natural division of time into years, months and days. The necessities of life, requiring still smaller and more precise divisions of time (which can be measured only by artificial means), gave rise to hours, minutes and seconds. This division of time is called the artificial. Even in the natural division, however, there is something arbitrary, as it depends solely on the will what point in the motions of the heavenly bodies shall be taken as the point of beginning; for example, in the annual rotation of the earth, whether we shall take the longest day of summer or the shortest day of winter. The first lawgivers, therefore, fixed the civil beginning and end of the month, day and year, and, at the same time also, the smaller divisions of these larger portions of time. From this separation of the natural and artificial or civil division of time, arises a division of chronology into mathematical, astronomical and historical. Astronomical chronology determines the duration of the natural portions of time by the revolutions of the heavenly bodies; historical chronology treats of the civil divisions of time, of the methods of reckoning time among different nations, of ancient periods or remarkable epochs, &c. It is obvious that each of these divisions of chronology requires the assistance of the others. All historical chronology is grounded on the astronomical, which cannot determine the duration of the periods of time without the aid of the civil division. Mathematicians and astronomers determine the natural periods of time as they are indicated by the motions of the sun and moon. It is left to legislators to determine by law on what day the year shall begin, how many days shall constitute a month, how many a week, &c. This civil regulation is the foundation of the calendar (q. v.) or almanac. Thus far must astronomical chronology be connected with historical; but the latter only can teach us the divisions adopted by different people. Historical chronology explains, 1. the form of the year among different nations, as it is regulated by lawgivers, founders of religions, and other founders of civil society: 2. those events which are selected by different nations as eras, that is, as points from which they begin their reckoning; e. g., the Yugs of the Hindoos, the era of Nabonassar, the era of the Seleucidæ, among the Chaldeans,