Syrians, Persians, Egyptians; the creation of the world, among the Jews; the birth of Christ, among Christians; the Olympiads, among the Greeks; the building of Rome and the consular era, among the Romans; the Hegira, or flight of Mohammed, among the Mohammedans, &c. As so many different eras render the reckoning of time difficult, it, 3dly, selects a form of the year and an era to which it refers those of other nations, and by which it arranges the history of all nations and times. The European chronologist and historian must refer the eras and years of all people to those used in modern Europe. Mathematical and astronomical chronology is taught in the manuals of astronomy. Among these may be mentioned the Astronomie of Lalande (2d vol. p. 270, 2d ed.) The Manual of Astronomical and Technical Chronology (from the sources) of D. L. Ideler (vol. 1, Berlin, 1825, vol. 2, 1826) is an excellent work. This savant has done much for the advancement of this science by his extensive researches into Asiatic as well as European literature.

CHRONOMETER; a time-piece of a peculiar construction, at present much employed by navigators in determining the longitude at sea. In general, chronometers are much larger than common watches, and are hung in gimbals, in boxes six or eight inches square; but there are also many pocket chronometers, which, externally, have all the appearance of the better sort of pocket watches, and internally differ from these only in the construction of the balance. The balance and hair-spring are the principal agents in regulating the rate of going in a common watch, being to this what the pendulum is to a common clock; and this spring, in the former, like the pendulum in the latter, is subject to expansions and contractions, under different degrees of heat and cold, which, of course, affect the speed or rate of the machine; and the methods of correcting this inaccuracy mark the difference between the watch and chronometer. These are very numerous. (See Horology.) With American navigators, chronometers are more common than with those of any other nation. All the lines of packets between the U. States and Europe have them.An instrument under the name of chronometer is also used by musicians for the accurate measurement of time. Two sorts have been invented for different purposes. The first supplies the motion of a conductor, and regularly beats time. In the British Magazine (ii. 283) may be found

an account of a graduated pendulum for this purpose, proposed by doctor Robinson; and others have since been sold at the principal music-shops in London. The second is used by tuners of instruments, to measure the velocity of beats. On this point, the reader may consult doctor Smith's Harmonics, p. 210. CHRYSALIS. (See Papilio.) CHRYSEIS. (See Achilles.)

CHRYSIPPUS, a Stoic philosopher of Cilicia, distinguished for his skill in disputing. He was the principal opposer of the Epicureans, and is said to have written 700 different works, mostly of a dialectical character; but of these no complete work is extant. He died, at a great age, about 206 years B. C.

CHRYSOBERYL (sometimes called cymophane, and, by the jewellers, Oriental chrysolite) was, for a long time, only known as occurring in semi-transparent, rounded pieces, in the alluvial deposits of rivers, along with other species of gems. Thus, in Brazil, it was found along with the diamond and topaz, and with rubies and sapphires in Ceylon. Distinct crystals were afterwards brought from Siberia, but their original situation still remains unknown. It is now known to exist, in beautifully distinct crystals, at two places in the U. States-at Haddam (Conn.) and Saratoga (N. Y.) They are found, at both these localities, in a granitic rock. The form of the crystal is, for the most part, a right rectangular prism, and a low, sixsided table (with reëntering angles), formed by the crossing of three prismatic crystals. Chrysoberyl scratches quartz; is of an olive-green color, and vitreous lustre, and is often possessed of a bluish opalescence. Specific gravity, 3.754. It is composed of alumine 68.66, glucine 16.00, silex 5.99, protoxide of iron 4.73, and oxide of titanium 2.66.

CHRYSOLITE; a greenish, yellowish or brownish stone, sometimes transparent, sometimes only translucent, which possesses the power of double refraction in a high degree. It is composed of silex and magnesia. The chrysolite employed in the arts comes chiefly from the Levant, and is sometimes used in jewellery, but is not highly esteemed. Werner thinks that the yellow chrysolite of the ancients is the modern topaz.

CHRYSOLORAS, Emanuel; a distinguished Greek of Constantinople, born about the middle of the 14th century, the first who, in modern times, transplanted Greek literature into Italy. The emperor John Palæologus sent him, in 1391, to

Severin, bishop of Gabala, in Syria, dared to attack Chrysostom from the pulpit, and to stir up the people against him; but his charges were rejected as calumnies. Chrysostom had two dangerous enemies the empress Eudoxia, whose injustice and extortions gave cause to many complaints; and Theophilus, patriarch of Alexandria, who was jealous of his influence. The latter assembled several bishops at Chalcedon, who were to investigate the complaints made against Chrysostom. But he refused to appear, alleging that they had acted against the laws of the church; and, on his part, assembled 40 bishops at Constantinople. His enemies, however, prevailed. His removal was determined upon, and sanctioned by Arcadius, who banished him from the country. Chrysostom quitted the city secretly, that he might not be prevented by his adherents, and purposed retiring to Bithynia; but the people threatened a revolt. In the following night, an earthquake gave general alarm. In this dilemma, Arcadius recalled his orders, and Eudoxia herself invited Chrysostom to return. The people accompanied him triumphantly to the city, his enemies fled, and peace was restored, but only for a short time. A feast, attended with many heathen ceremonies, for the consecration of a statue, given by the empress, roused the zeal of the archbishop, who publicly exclaimed against it; and Eudoxia, violently incensed, recalled the prelates devoted to her will, and Chrysostom was condemned, although 40 bishops declared themselves in his favor. Arcadius ordered the soldiers to force him from the church, which was profaned and stained with blood. Pope Innocent I and the emperor Honorius declared themselves in favor of Chrysostom, but Arcadius refused to assemble the council, on which the others insisted, and commanded Chrysostom peremptorily to retire to the place of his banishment. He obeyed, and was conveyed to Nice, in Bithynia (404). Soon after his departure, the church and the palace where the senate used to assemble became a prey to the flames. Many works of art were lost in this conflagration, which the emperor attributed to the friends of Chrysostom. The Isaurians and Huns laid waste the empire. Chrysostom's return was universally desired; Arcadius remained inflexible. Eudoxia died soon after Chrysostom's banishment, after having fixed upon the little Armenian town Cucusus, in the wilds of Taurus, for his abode. Exhausted by sickness, deprivations, and the fatigues of

his journey, he arrived there, and continued to exert his pious zeal. He sent missionaries to Persia and Phoenicia, and wrote 17 letters to Olympias, all of which are moral dissertations. He likewise addressed to her his work entitled, "None can injure him who does not injure himself." All Christendom beheld the pious sufferer with love and admiration; at which the emperor, exasperated, commanded him to be conveyed to the shores of the Pontus Euxinus, to the town of Pityont, situated on its most distant borders. The officers who had him in charge obliged the old man to perform this journey on foot, with his head uncovered, in the burning heat of the sun; but he fell a prey to exhaustion. In Comana, in Pontus, he was brought to the oratory of the martyr St. Basil. He put on white garments, received the eucharist, uttered a fervent prayer, which he closed, as usual, with the words "Praise be to God for all things," crossed himself, and expired (407), 63 years old. His body was interred at the side of that of St. Basil; but, in 438, it was conveyed solemnly to Constantinople, and there interred in the church of the apostles, in the sepulchre of the emperor. At a later period, his remains were placed in the Vatican at Rome. The Greek church celebrates his feast on the 13th of November, the Roman on the 27th of January. The name of Chrysostom (golden-mouthed) was assigned to him, after his death, to express the eloquence which he possessed in so much greater a degree than the other fathers of the church. He never repeats himself, and is always original. The vivacity and power of his imagination, the force of his logic, his power of arousing the passions, the beauty and accuracy of his comparisons, the neatness and purity of his style, his clearness and sublimity, place him on a level with the most celebrated Greek authors: the Christian church has not a more accomplished orator.-The most accurate Greek edition of his works is that of Henry Saville (1612, 9 vols. fol.); the most complete Greek and Latin, is that of Montfauçon (Paris, 1618, 13 vols. fol.) Professor Neander, at Berlin, has written a biography of this father of the church, or rather a history of him and his time, entitled St. Chrysostom, a highly esteemed work, full of the important results of the deep researches of its learned author.

CHUBB, Thomas; a writer in humble life, who obtained great temporary distinction as a controversialist. He was born at East Hadham, near Salisbury, and

was instructed only in reading, writing and accounts. He was apprenticed to a glover, but, at length, became journeyman to a tallow-chandler, and employed his leisure in the acquisition of knowledge, from the best English books which he could procure. In 1715, he published The Supremacy of the Father asserted, &c., the perspicuity and argumentative skill of which obtained for it much notice. Of course, a production, assailing a part of the orthodox faith, did not pass without reply, and a controversial warfare commenced, which lasted as long as his life. In 1730, he offered to the world his thoughts on a variety of topics, moral and theological, in 34 tracts, collected in a 4to. volume, of which book Pope, in a letter to Gay, speaks with great respect. Various publications followed, e. g., A Discourse concerning Reason, The true Gospel of Jesus Christ asserted, Inquiry into the Ground and Foundation of Religion, &c., which manifest his disposition to question many points of orthodoxy. He, however, adhered to the general conclusion, that Jesus was sent from God as an instructer to mankind, and regularly attended public worship at his parish church until his death. Chubb seems never to have sought to emerge from the humble condition in which fortune had placed him, although he met with some powerful patrons. He died suddenly in February, 1747, aged 68.

CHULUCANAS; the name of an ancient ruined city of Peru, on the ridge of the Cordilleras, at the height of 8943 feet above the level of the sea, and on the Paramo of Chulucanas, between the Indian villages of Ayavaca and Guancabamba. Humboldt says, that the great causey of the Incas, lined with freestone-one of the most useful and stupendous works ever executed by man, and which may be compared with the finest Roman roads-is still in good preservation, between Chulucanas, Guamani and Sagique; and Francisco Coreal found it perfect in two other places, and states that it yields in nothing to the most magnificent European road. It runs from Quito, through Cuzco, to La Plata, or from the equator to 20° of S. latitude. On the summit of the Andes, wherever this road passes, ruins of great buildings are every where seen. Humboldt counted nine in less than half a degree of latitude; and Pedro de Cieca de Leon, who wrote in 1541, describes several which he saw in the province of Los Canares. They are now called, by the Peruvians, palaces of the Incas, but were

probably only fortifications to secure the conquests of Quito and Chile.

CHUQUISACA, or LA PLATA; a city of South America, and capital of Bolivia; lat. 19° 40′ S.; lon. 66° 46′ W.; population, 18,000. The inhabitants consist of Indians and Spaniards. It stands on a plain, environed by eminences, which defend it from all winds. The temperature of the air, in summer, is very mild; nor is there any considerable difference throughout the year. The houses have one story besides the ground floor. They are covered with tiles, and are very roomy and convenient, with delightful gardens, planted with European fruit-trees; but water is so scarce as hardly to supply the necessary purposes of life, and is brought from the several public fountains dispersed in the different parts of the city. The town had the name of La Plata from its being built near silver mines. It was erected into a bishopric in 1551, the place having then the title of city, and, in 1608, was raised to an archbishopric. The cathedral is large, of good architecture, and finely adorned with paintings and gildings. The city has also a university, dedicated to St. Francis Xavier, the chairs of which are filled indifferently with secular clergy or laymen; but the rector was formerly always a Jesuit.

CHUR. (See Coire.)

CHURCH is, in the widest sense of the word, the collective body of those who declare themselves to be followers of Christ. In this sense, the founder of the church is Jesus Christ himself; for, though his followers did not separate themselves from the community of the synagogue until after his death, yet he had, by preaching a doctrine essentially different from Judaism, and by collecting disciples and friends around him, laid the foundation of a new religious body. Moreover, he ordered his disciples, at the time of his departure from the world, to go forth and preach the gospel through the earth, and established two religious ceremonies, by which his followers were to be distinguished. These circumstances, many have thought, must be taken as indicating his intention to found a church. Judaism, too, may be considered as having paved the way for the establishment of a Christian church or organized religious community.-But the word church is not so often taken in the sense just described as in a much narrower one, in which it signifies a body of Christians, which differs in doctrines, constitution and usages from the remainder. From the 11th cen

tury, the Greek or Oriental Christians were separated from the Latin Christians, or Christians of the West; and thus originated the difference between the Greek Catholic church, whose chief is the patriarch of Constantinople, and the Roman Catholic church, whose chief is the Roman bishop, or the pope. In the 16th century, the reformation caused another division in the Western church, one part of its members seceding from the government of the Roman see, and adopting different doctrines from those professed by the rest. Thus arose the difference between the Catholic and Protestant churches. It might reasonably be asked, whether some Protestant sects do not differ from each other as much as from the Catholic church; for instance, the Quakers from the English Episcopal church. But, for the purpose of this article, it is sufficient that, in the common use of language, they are all called Protestants. There is, moreover, one point which distinguishes all Protestant sects, or the whole Protestant church, from the two Catholic ones, namely, that the Protestants declare the Bible their only ground of belief, and permit it to be freely read and examined into. In a third sense, the word church is sometimes used for the whole Christian community of a country, e. g., the French church, Italian church, &c.-In a fourth sense, this word signifies the building in which Christians assemble for the worship of God. The Christians of the 1st century worshipped in private houses, or in the open air, in remote places, because they were not acknowledged by the state, and were often persecuted. It was not till the 3d century, that they could venture to give more publicity to their service, and to build churches. Since the 4th century, the churches have become large and magnificent edifices. Such were erected by Constantine and, more particularly, by Theodosius and Justinian. Many heathen temples, also, were changed into Christian churches. In the middle ages, many splendid edifices were erected for the performance of divine service, which, in loftiness and grandeur, were never surpassed. Some of the most famous churches at present are St. Peter's, at Rome; Notre Dame, at Paris; St. Stephen's, at Vienna; the church of Isaac, at St. Petersburg; the minsters at Strasburg and Cologne; and St. Paul's church, in London. (See Cathedrals.) Excepting the last mentioned edifice, Protestantism has produced no very splendid church. In fact, the Protestants, in the construc

tion of their places of worship, seem to have had almost exclusively in view the accommodation of the hearers, particularly in England and America. This fact is easily explained from the circumstance that they do not celebrate, in their churches, divine service, in the sense in which the Catholics use the phrase, but chiefly meet to hear the Bible explained to them, and to be instructed in their duties; on account of which the churches of a large portion of Protestants are often, or even usually, called meeting-houses, and their sermons discourses.-In New England, the word church is used to denote the members of a religious society, who have made a public profession of the Christian religion, in contradistinction to the other individuals belonging to the same religious society, who have not made such a profession. There are various derivations of the word church, which, of course, has the same origin with the German Kirche, and the Scottish kirk. Some derive it from the Greek κυριακὸν, from κύριος, lord, a house appropriated for the service of the Lord. Others think the German word is a translation of the Latin ecclesia, in which case it would be derived from küren, to elect, and imply the idea of the elect people of God.

As it is the natural course of things that the different branches, powers, or, in general, the component parts of every establishment, are at first confounded, and separated only by degrees, with the progress of improvement, and after long struggles, so it has been with the church and the state. The violent contentions which took place at first between the emperor of Germany, who considered himself emperor of Christendom, and the pope, were repeated in many countries, and still continue in some. It would far exceed our limits to give even a sketch of these disputes, and of the theories which have been advanced on the different sides respecting this question: we will only mention, that, in all Protestant countries, the monarchs have usurped the highest ecclesiastical power, without any support from history or Scripture. Three equally untenable theories have been advanced to justify this assumption:1. the episcopal system, so called, according to which the episcopal rights are said to have been transferred to the sovereign by the reformation; 2: the territorial system, which maintains that the worldly ruler is, ipso facto, spiritual chief of the church of his country; 3. the collegial system, which considers the members of a church as a society, whose rights rest upon a con