come, he engaged in the sale of cider, but, being little adapted for trade, soon became insolvent. Returning to London, on the death of his father, he obtained his curacy; but, owing to the smallness of his income, and, most likely, to his fondness for theatrical amusements and the company of the wits of the day, he was soon overwhelmed with debt. A composition with his creditors being effected by the humane mediation of doctor Lloyd, the second master of Westminster school, he began to think of seriously exerting the talents which he was conscious that he possessed. Under the title of the Rosciad, a poem, published first in March, 1761, without a name, he examined the excellences and defects of the actors in the two houses in London, with equal spirit, judgment and vivacity. The language and versification too, although sometimes careless and unequal, were far superior to the ordinary strain of current poetry in strength and energy, and the entire production bore the stamp of no common talents. The celebrity of this poem was very great, and the players very weakly increased it by the impatience with which they resented its censures. Pamphlets abounded on both sides of the question; and the author justified himself in a new satire, entitled the Apology, in which the profession of a player was treated with humorous contempt. These works made him many enemies, for which he cared very little, as they brought him the far more dangerous intimacy and applause of the men of wit and pleasure about the town. A course of dissipation and intemperance followed, which excited much animadversion, and elicited from him his next satire, entitled Night. The Cock-lane imposture, also, formed a topic for his muse, and he hesitated not to satirize doctor Johnson, in the piece entitled the Ghost. He next fell in with the national ill humor against the Scotch, which originated in the political occurrences of the commencement of the reign of George III, by his Prophecy of Famine, a Scotch pastoral, being a most acrimonious, yet strongly-drawn caricature of Scottish disadvantages. This poem was received with great avidity, and he immediately took that rank as a political satirist, which he long maintained, at the expense of candor and decorum, and to the deterioration of both his poetical and moral character. Of the latter, indeed, he now became utterly careless; and, dropping the clerical habit, he parted from his wife, and even distinguished himself in the fashionable art of seduction. Being now a party writer by

profession, he cultivated an acquaintance with Mr. Wilkes, and employed his pen assiduously in the cause of opposition, and for his own emolument. Besides the works already mentioned, he published, within three or four years, an Epistle to Hogarth, the Conference, the Duellist, the Author, Gotham, the Candidate, the Times, Independence, and the Journey. Most of these pieces contain detached pictures, which display a vigorous fancy and forcible sentiments, expressed with great occasional energy. In versification, Churchill avowedly imitated Dryden; and when he writes with care, he well exemplifies his appreciation of his model; but he wrote too hastily not to injure his composition by prosaic lines, and he frequently passed off his carelessness for design. Towards the end of the year 1764, he was seized with a fever, and died on the 4th of November, the same year, at the age of 34. CHURCH-YARD. (See Burying-Places and Cemetery.)

CHYLE. (See Chyme.)

CHYME, in animal economy. In the process of digestion, the food is subjected to a temperature usually above 90° of Fahrenheit. It is mixed with the gastric juice, a liquor secreted by the glands of the stomach, and is made to undergo a moderate and alternate pressure, by the contraction of the stomach itself. It is thus converted into a soft, uniform mass, of a grayish color, in which the previous texture or nature of the aliment can be no longer distinguished. The chyme, as this pulpy mass into which the food in the stomach is resolved is termed, passes by the pylorus into the intestinal canal, where it is mixed with the pancreatic juice and the bile, and is still exposed to the same temperature and alternating pressure. The thinner parts of it are absorbed by the slender tubes termed the lacteals. The liquor thus absorbed is of a white color: it passes through the glands of the mesentery, and is at length conveyed by the thoracic duct into the blood. This part of the process is termed chylification, and the white liquor thus formed, chyle. It is an opaque, milky fluid, mild to the taste. By standing for some time, one part of it coagulates; another portion is coagulated by heat. The chyle, after mixing with the lymph conveyed by the absorbent vessels, is received into the blood, which has returned from the extreme vessels, before this passes to the heart. All traces of it are very soon lost in the blood, as it mixes perfectly with that fluid. It is probable, however, that its nature is not immediately

completely altered. The blood passing from the heart is conveyed to the lungs, where it circulates over a very extensive surface presented to the atmospheric air, with the intervention of a very thin membrane, which does not prevent their mutual action. During this circulation, the blood loses a considerable quantity of carbon, part of which, it is probable, is derived from the imperfectly assimilated chyle, as this, originating in part from vegetable matter, must contain carbon in larger proportion than even the blood itself.

CIBBER, Colley, a dramatic writer and actor, born in London, 1671, served under the duke of Devonshire, in the revolution which placed the prince of Orange on the throne, and then made his appearance at Drury-lane theatre. He was not at first very successful; but, at length, the talent which he displayed in the character of Fondlewife, in the Old Bachelor of Congreve, brought him into notice. In 1695, appeared his first comedy, Love's last Shift, which met with great success. In this piece, he played the part of Novelty, a fashionable fop. This character is found in most of his pieces, and in the representation of it he was likewise distinguished. His dramatic celebrity is founded chiefly on the Careless Husband, which even obtained the approbation of his declared enemy, Pope. This piece is, indeed, without novelty in the characters, and without invention in the plot, but it is a good picture of the manners and follies of the time. His comedy the Nonjuror, an imitation of Tartuffe, adapted to English manners, appeared in 1717, and was directed against the Jacobites. It was very successful, and procured him a pension from the court, but drew upon him many enemies, whose number he increased by his conduct as director of Drury-lane theatre, from 1711. His appointment as poet-laureate, 1730, gave full play to the raillery of his enemies. Cibber had the good sense to join in the laugh against his own verses, and thus to disarm them. Pope, however, did not cease to ridicule him on every opportunity. In 1750, he quitted the theatre, and published the Apology for the Life of Colley Cibber, &c., written with spirit and candor, and containing many entertaining anecdotes and judicious remarks. died in 1757.

He

CIBBER, Theophilus, son of the subject of the preceding article, was born in 1703, and embraced the profession of an actor. With respect to personal appearance, na

ture had not been more favorable to him than to his father; but his intelligence and vivacity in his performances compensated for his deficiencies, and he would have been successful on the stage if his extravagance had not continually involved him in difficulties. He was engaged, in 1757, to play at a Dublin theatre, but was shipwrecked on his passage, and drowned. The Biography of English and Irish Poets, which appeared under his name, was from the pen of Robert Shiels, a Scotchman, who purchased, for 10 guineas, the right of prefixing to the work the name of Cibber, then in prison for debt.-Cibber's wife, Susanna Maria, born 1716, was one of the best actresses on the English stage. She was sister of the celebrated doctor Arne (composer of Rule Britannia), who taught her music, and introduced her, in one of his operas, at the Haymarket theatre. In 1734, she married Theophilus Cibber, but was soon after separated from him. She subsequently made her appearance in tragedy. Her beauty and her talents gained her universal admiration. She died in 1766.

CIBORIUM; originally, a drinking-vessel made from an Egyptian plant. In the Roman church, it is the vessel in which the consecrated host (the venerabile) is preserved.

CICADA. (See Grasshopper.)

CICERO, Marcus Tullius. This celebrated Roman was born in the year of Rome 647 (106 B. C.), at Arpinum. His family belonged to the order of equites, but had always kept themselves aloof from public business and office. His father, who lived in retirement, devoted to science, was the friend of the first citizens of the republic. Amongst this number was the celebrated orator Crassus, who himself attended to the education of the young Cicero and his brother Quintus, selected teachers for them, and directed their studies. The perusal of the Greek authors, together with poetry, oratory and philosophy, occupied the first years of Cicero's youth. He wrote a great deal in Greek. His versification was good, but his poetical merits, on the whole, only moderate. His destination was, to be the first orator of Rome. In his youth, he made one campaign under Sylla, in the Marsic war. After his return, he availed himself of the instruction of the academician Philo, and of the celebrated orator Molo, and employed several years in acquiring the knowledge requisite for an orator. He witnessed the barbarities of Marius and Cinna, and the proscriptions of Sylla,

after which the exhausted, blood-stained republic remained undisturbed under the yoke of its dictator. Cicero, at that time 26 years old, endowed with knowledge and genius, appeared before the tribunals, at first in civil suits, afterwards in a criminal process, in which he defended Roscius Amerinus, who was accused of parricide by Chrysogonus, a freedman of Sylla. He conducted this defence with courage, confuted the accusers, and obliged the judges to acquit the accused. After this brilliant display, he remained a year in Rome, and undertook another suit. His conduct, in both instances, must have displeased the dictator. But his debilitat ed health obliged him to travel; and he went to Athens, which was still the centre of science. Here he resided in the house of an academician, was visited by the philosophers of all the schools, and profited by the instruction of the masters of oratory. Thus he passed six months with his friend Atticus, in the enjoyment of literary pursuits. His initiation into the mysteries of Eleusis is supposed to have taken place about this time. He also undertook a journey to Asia, and remained some time at Rhodes, where he likewise visited the most distinguished orators, and partook in their exercises. On his return to Rome, his displays of eloquence proved the value of his Grecian instruction. Among others, he defended the celebrated actor Roscius, his friend, and master in the art of elocution. At last, at the age of 30, he engaged in public business. He became questor of Sicily, during the prevalence of a great scarcity at Rome, and managed to convey a large quantity of corn from thence to the capital, though it was difficult for him so to do without exciting the displeasure of the Sicilians. He afterwards returned to Rome, and appeared as an orator, defending the causes of private individuals, merely for the sake of fame. It was an honorable day for Cicero, when the ambassadors from Sicily appeared before him, with the request that he would conduct their suit against their governor Verres. He showed himself worthy of the confidence of an oppressed people, and appeared against this powerful robber, after having himself collected proofs of his crimes in Sicily. He was opposed by the celebrated Hortensius. The crimes of Verres are painted in the liveliest colors in his immortal speeches. Seven are preserved, but only two of them were delivered. Hortensius was struck dumb by the force of truth, and Verres went into voluntary

exile. After this suit, Cicero was elected to the office of edile. Though possessed of only a moderate fortune, he managed, by well-timed liberality, to gain the af fections of the people whilst he held this office. But, for the execution of his plans, he was likewise in need of the friendship of the great, to obtain which he joined the party of Pompey, the head of the nobility and the first citizens of Rome. He became his panegyrist and most zealous adherent. Catiline at that time began to plan his conspiracy against the republic. He was accused of extortion in his government of Africa, and Cicero was on the point of undertaking his defence, when they became rivals, being both candidates for the consulship. Cicero's merit prevailed over Catiline's intrigues and the envy of his enemies. He was chosen consul unanimously; and now commences the most splendid period of his political life. He succeeded in defeating the conspiracy of Catiline. (q.v.) At the same time, he conducted a private suit, in a masterly speech defending Murena, consul elect for the ensuing year, against the accusations of the Stoic Cato. After Catiline's fall, the Romans greeted Cicero as the father of his country. But a factious tribune would not consent to his rendering an account of his administration; and, on retiring from the consulate, Cicero was only able to pronounce the celebrated oath, "I swear that I have saved the republic." Cæsar was always his opponent, and Pompey feared a citizen who loved liberty too much to be favorable to the triumvirs. Cicero saw his credit gradually decreasing, and even his safety threatened. He therefore occupied himself more than ever with science, wrote the history of his consulate, in Greek, and composed a Latin poem on the same subject, in three books. At last the storm broke out. Clodius, Cicero's enemy, caused a law to be renewed, declaring every one guilty of treason, who commanded the execution of a Roman citizen before the people had condemned him. The illustrious ex-consul put on mourning, and appeared, accompanied by the equites and many young patricians, demanding the protection of the people. Clodius, at the head of armed adherents, insulted them repeatedly, and ventured even to besiege the senate. Cicero, upon this, went into voluntary exile, travelled through Italy, and ultimately took refuge in Thessalonica, with Plancus. Clodius, in the mean time, procured new decrees, in consequence of which Cicero's country-seats were torn down, and a tem

ple of freedom built on the site of his house at Rome. Cicero's wife and children were exposed to ill treatment. Whilst the accounts of these occurrences drove the unhappy man almost to despair, a change favorable to him was preparing in Rome. The audacity of Clodius became equally insupportable to all. Pompey encouraged Cicero's friends to get him recalled to Rome. The senate declared that it would not attend to any business until the decree which ordered his banishment was revoked. Through the zeal of the consul Lentulus, and at the proposition of several tribunes, the decree of recall passed the assembly of the people, in the following year, in spite of a bloody tumult, in which Cicero's brother Quintus was dangerously wounded. In this honorable manner Cicero returned, after an absence of ten months. The assembled senate received him at the gates of the city, and his entry resembled a triumph. The republic undertook the charge of rebuilding his houses. From this period, a new epoch commences in Cicero's life. His republican zeal diminished in proportion as his attachment to Pompey increased, whom he declared his benefactor. Clodius opposed with arms the rebuilding of Cicero's houses, and often attacked him personally. Milo repelled his attacks, and accused him, at the same time, before the tribunal. Rome became frequently a field of battle. Cicero, meanwhile, passed several years with little public employment, occupied with his rhetorical works. To oblige Pompey, he defended Vatinius and Gabinius, two citizens of bad character, who had shown themselves his implacable enemies. At the age of 54, he entered the college of the augurs. The death of the turbulent Clodius, who was slain by Milo, delivered him from his most dangerous opponent. He defended the perpetrator of this act, who was his friend and avenger, in a beautiful speech; but the presence of Pompey's soldiers, and the tumult of the friends of Clodius, confused him whilst delivering it. At this period, the senate appointed him governor of Cilicia. Cicero conducted a war, while in this office, with good success, repulsed the Parthians, and was greeted by the soldiers with the title of imperator. But he was not allowed the honor of a triumph. As soon as his term of office had expired, he returned to Rome, which was threatened with serious disturbances, owing to the rupture between Cæsar and Pompey. Dreading the horrors of a civil war, he endeavored

in vain to reconcile the rivals. Cæsar advanced towards Rome, and Pompey was forced to fly with the consuls and the senate. Cicero, not anticipating this sudden approach of Cæsar, was still in Italy. Caesar saw him at Formiæ, but was not able to gain him over; for, although convinced that the party of Cæsar was likely to prevail, and although his son-in-law, Dolabella, was one of Cæsar's confidants, he was prompted by his sense of honor to return to Pompey. After the battle of Pharsalia and the flight of Pompey, he refused to take the command of some troops who had remained at Dyrrhachium, but returned to Italy, which was governed by Cæsar's representative, Antony. This return was attended with several unpleasant circumstances, until the conqueror wrote to him, and soon after received him graciously. Cicero now devoted himself entirely to literature and philosophy. He was divorced from his wife Terentia, to enable him to marry a beautiful and rich heiress, whose guardian he was. But the pecuniary considerations which induced him to take this step could never prevail on him to flatter power: on the contrary, he purposely kept aloof, and ridiculed the flatterers of Cæsar, priding himself on his panegyric of Cato. But his disaffection was overcome by the liberality of Cæsar, when he pardoned Marcellus. Enraptured by this act of favor, which restored his friend to him, Cicero broke silence, and delivered a famous oration, which contained as much instruction as panegyric for the dictator. Soon after, he spoke in defence of Ligarius, and Cæsar, relenting, gave up his purpose of condemning the accused to death. Cicero now regained a part of his former consideration, when the death of his daughter Tullia occurred, and affected him very painfully. The assassination of Cæsar opened a new career to the orator. He hoped to regain great political influence. The conspirators shared with him the honor of an enterprise in which no part had been assigned him; and the less he had contributed to it himself, the more anxious was he to justify the deed, and pursue the advantages which it offered. But Antony took Cæsar's place. Even in this turbulent year, Cicero found leisure for literary occupations, and, among other labors, completed his work De Gloria, which was lost as late as in the 14th century. He determined on going to Greece, where he could live in safety; but he soon returned to Rome, and composed those admirable orations against Antony, which are known to us by

the name of Philippics, and which are equally distinguished for eloquence and patriotism. His implacable enmity towards Antony induced him to favor young Octavius, although the pretended moderation of the latter did not deceive him. With him originated all the energetic resolutions of the senate in favor of the war which the consuls and the young Cæsar were conducting, in the name of the republic, against Antony. Octavius having possessed himself of the consulate, and formed an alliance with Antony and Lepidus, after the death of the two consuls, the power of the senate and of the orator yielded to the arms of the triumvirs. Cicero, who had always spared Octavius, and even proposed to Brutus to be reconciled with him, was at last convinced that liberty was at an end. At Tusculum, whither he had retired with his brother and nephew, he learnt that his name, at Antony's demand, had been added to the list of the proscribed. He repaired, in a state of indecision, to the sea-coast, and embarked. Contrary winds drove him back to the shore. At the request of his slaves, he embarked a second time, but soon returned again to await his fate at his country-seat near Formiæ. "I will die," exclaimed he," in my country, which I have more than once saved." His slaves, seeing the neighborhood already disturbed by the soldiers of the triumvirs, endeavored to convey him away in a litter, but soon discovered the murderers at their heels. They prepared for combat; but Cicero, who felt that death was unavoidable, ordered them to make no resistance, bent his head before Popilius, the commander of the murderers, who had once been saved by his eloquence, and suffered death more courageously than he had borne misfortune. He died in his 64th year, A. U. C. 711 (B. C. 43). His head and hands were, by the orders of Antony, affixed to the same rostrum from which the orator, as Livy says, had poured forth eloquence unequalled by any human voice. Cicero merited the character which Augustus gave him in these words: "He was a good citizen, who loved his country sincerely." He was (particularly considering the spirit of his times) a virtuous man, for his faults were only weaknesses of character, not vices, and he always pursued good for its own sake, or (what, if a fault, is easily forgiven) for the sake of fame. His heart was open to all noble impressions, to all great and fine feelings, to patriotism, friendship, gratitude, and love of science. Cicero's eloquence has

always remained a model. After the revival of learning, he was the most admired of the ancient writers; and the purity and elegance of his style will always place him in the first rank of Roman classics. The style of his philosophical writings, without oratorical ostentation, breathes that pure Attic elegance which some of his contemporaries wished also to see in his orations. The orator is seen, however, in his prolix and comparatively unanimated dialogues. His philosophical works, the principal part of the contents of which is taken from the Greek, and which combine academic and Stoic doctrines and principles, possess very unequal interest for us. Thus, for example, his work De Natura Deorum is, for us, only a collection of errors: the Tusculana Quæstiones are full of the subtilties of the Athenian school: his work De Finibus Bonorum et Malorum likewise belongs to this somewhat dry, dogmatic philosophy. On the other hand, his works on practical morals have maintained their full value. The book De Officiis is to this day the finest treatise on virtue, inspired by pure human wisdom. The pleasures of friendship and old age have likewise been excellently set forth in Cicero's De Amicitia and De Senectute. Of his political work De Republica, a considerable part was brought to light by Maio, and published in Rome in 1822. Cicero wrote the six books De Rep. in his 54th year. In these he endeavored to show by what policy, what resources and what morals Rome had obtained the dominion of the world. Steinacker published these fragments at Leipsic, in 1823. Villemain translated and explained them (Paris, 1823). The work has also been translated in the United States (New York, 1829). Professor Gust. Münnich, in Cracow, gives an account of the Sarmatian copy of Cicero De Rep., which, in 1581, was in the possession of a Volhynian nobleman, and has since disappeared, in his work, M. Tull. Ciceronis Libri De Republica notit. Codicis Sarmat. (Göttingen, 1825). According to him, Goslicki used this copy in his work De perfecto Senatore. Cicero's works De Divinatione and De Legibus are instructive monuments of antiquity. The same philosophical spirit is evident in all his oratorical treatises, particularly in the most important of them, De Oratore, although this contains as little of utility for us as the Claris Oratoribus, Topicis, De Partitione Oratoria, &c. most interesting of all Cicero's works, for posterity, are his Epistolæ familiares and

The