Ad Atticum, which give a more exact and lively idea of the state of the republic than any of his other works, and display most strongly the characteristic traits of the author. They are translated, in a masterly style, by Wieland. The life of Cicero was written, of old, by Plutarch, and has been also, in modern times, by Middleton and Morabin. In the publication and explanation of his works, Paulus and Aldus Manutius, Lambinus, the two Gruters, the two Gronovii, &c., have distinguished themselves. We possess late editions of his entire works, by J. A. Ernesti, Beck and Schütz. Cicero's life, interesting on many accounts, is particularly so to the historical politician, as showing the consequences of the deplorable state of the Roman republic, in the case of so distinguished an individual, as well as the impossibility of preserving its liberty. Cato, Cicero, and some others, were worthy of having lived in a better age of the republic, to the corruption of which they fell martyrs.-In 1828 appeared a highly important work, edited by Maio (q. v.), Classicorum Auctorum e Vaticanis Codicibus Editorum: Tomus I et II, curante Angelo Majo, Vaticana Bibliothecæ Præfecto. Roma, Typis Vaticanis, 1828, 8vo. The second volume contains all the fragments of Cicero's orations which have been discovered by Maio, Niebuhr and Peyron.

CICERONE; the title of the person who, in Italy, and particularly in Rome, shows and explains to strangers curiosities and antiquities. The talkativeness of such persons has procured them the name of cicerone, in jocular allusion to Cicero. A good cicerone must possess extensive and accurate information; and several distinguished archæologists have pursued this business, as it gives them an opportunity, while serving others, to make repeated examinations of the works of art, and thus to become continually more familiar with them. Signore Nibbi is the most distinguished cicerone. He explains antiquities on the spot, in Rome, in a very interesting manner.

CICISBEO; a name given, since the 17th century, in Italy, to the professed gallant of a married lady. It is the fashion, among the higher ranks in Italy, for the husband, from the day of marriage, to associate with his wife in his own house only. In society, or places of public amusement, she is accompanied by the cicisbeo, who even attends at her toilet, to receive her commands for the day. This custom is the more extraordinary,

from the natural jealousy of the Italian, who seems to change his character completely after marriage. Father Barri has made the Cicisbeatura the subject of a moral work, and divides it into larga and stretta; the first kind he thinks pardonable, but the latter he regards with repugnance. This custom is much on the decline in Italy.

In

CICOGNARA, Leopold, count of, born at Ferrara, about 1780. He early showed a great taste for the fine arts. His first work was Memorie Storiche dei Letterati ed Artisti Ferraresi (Ferrara, 1811). Napoleon made him president of the academy of fine arts at Venice, where his house became a central point for the lovers of the fine arts. The French emperor also assisted him in his enterprises, and made him knight of the iron crown. After the emperor's fall, the Austrian government allowed Cicognara to retain his place as president of the academy of fine arts. 1818, he accompanied the works of art sent by the government of Venice to Vienna as a present for the empress Caroline of Austria. At the same time, he presented her 100 copies of his Omaggio delle Provincie Venete alla Maestà di Carolina Augusta (Venice, 1818, fol.), with 18 engravings. The work is splendidly executed. Besides the 100 copies presented to the empress, only 500 were struck off, which never came into the book trade. This Omaggio, therefore, belongs to the great bibliographical rarities. (See the count's Lettera sulla Statua rappresentante Polimnia di Canova, Venice, 1817, p. 101.) Cicognara, having long entertained the idea of continuing Winckelmann's History of Art to the latest times, and having collected copious materials for this purpose, at length produced a work which has been violently attacked, both on account of its prolixity and its deficiencies. It is, however, one which cannot be dispensed with. Its title is, Storia della Scultura dal suo Risorgimento in Italia sino al Secolo di Canova, of which vol. 1, fol., with 43 copperplates, was published in Venice, at the expense of the author. It was followed, in 1816, by vol. 2, containing 90 engravings. This volume had on its title, Sino al Secolo XIX. Vol. 3 was published in 1818, with 48 plates. Of the 2d edition, the 5th vol. appeared at Prato in 1824. When the first volume was completed, Cicognara presented it himself to Napoleon, to whom it is dedicated. On his visit to Paris for this purpose, he was elected a member of the institute. He had received assistance from the French government

in the execution of his work; but this was withdrawn on the restoration of the Bourbons, and the author became much embarrassed, as he had spent a great part of his private fortune in the undertaking. In consequence of having been confounded with another Cicognara, who was imprisoned in Italy as a member of the Carbonari, he published a letter, while at Paris, on the subject of the political persecutions in his country, and expressed his opinion very freely. On his return from Paris, he was received at Venice very coolly, and, in consequence, went to Rome. Having spent his fortune in his literary enterprises, he was obliged to sell his library, which he had been 30 years in collecting. For this purpose he published a Catalogo ragionato dei Libri d'Arti e d'Antichità posseduti dal Conte Cicognara (Pisa, 2 vols.). This catalogue is a work of value, as the titles are accompanied with bibliographical notices. Among the smaller works of the count, of which there are many, is Le Fabbriche più cospicue di Venezia, misurate, illustrate ed intagliate dei Membri della Veneta R. Accademia delle belle Arti (Venice, 1820, 2 vols. fol.) The work contains 250 engravings, and the greater part of the critical observations are by Cicognara himself.

CICUTA. The cicuta, or common American hemlock (conium maculatum), is one of the most valuable and important of medicinal vegetables. It is a plant indigenous in most temperate climates, and is found commonly along walls and fences, and about old ruins and buildings. It is an annual plant, of four or five feet in height, having very fine double pinnate leaves, of a pale-green color, and bearing flowers of a greenish-white, in large, flat heads. It was first introduced to general notice, together with other vegetables of the same kind, by baron Storck of Vienna. The most common form in which it is administered, is the extract, which is given in pills. Of this, from 12 to 60 grains per day may be taken for a long time. It is invaluable in all chronic inflammations, and enlargements of glandular parts, as the liver, the womb, &c., tumors of which it will sometimes remove in a space of time surprisingly short. Its use may be continued, if necessary, for a long time, and it is not found to debilitate or injure the system in the manner that mercury always does when long used. Its green leaves, stirred into a soft poultice, form an excellent application for painful sores and ulcers; and the same leaves, dried and rubbed fine, make, when mixed with ce

rate or lard, a capital ointment for irritable sores, with which a poultice does not agree.

CID. Don Rodrigo (Ruy) Diaz, count of Bivar, surnamed the Cid, born in 1026, the model of the heroic virtues of his age, and the flower of Spanish chivalry, styled by his enemies (the ambassadors of the Moorish kings) el mio Cid (my lord), and by his king and countrymen Campeador (hero without an equal), continues to live in the poetry of his country. We were made acquainted with the history of his life by the play of the great Corneille. Rodrigo loved and was beloved by Ximene, daughter of Lozano, count of Gormaz, who, with Diego, the father of Rodrigo, excelled all the knights at the court of Ferdinand I of Castile. The envy of Gormaz at Diego's superior estimation at court produced a dispute between the two, which led to a duel. Gormaz vanquished the old Diego, and, insult being added to this disgrace, Diego demanded from his son the blood of the offender. In the contest between honor and love, the former prevailed in the breast of the youth, and Gormaz fell. Ximene, unfortunate as a daughter and a mistress, could no longer listen to the voice of love: it became necessary for her to demand vengeance on the object of her affections, and Rodrigo would willingly have rushed to the combat, if by so doing he could have alleviated the torments of a lacerated heart. But no champion was found to meet the young hero; and nothing but the discharge of the important duties which devolved upon him could preserve him from sinking under his despair. Five Moorish kings appeared in Castile: devastation and death accompanied their progress. Rodrigo, who was not yet 20 years of age, threw himself upon his noble horse Babieca, and, at the head of his vassals, went to meet the enemy, who soon ceased to be the terror of the country. The young hero sent the five captive kings to Ferdinand, who, as a reward for his bravery, gave him Ximene, and united those whom the decrees of fate seemed to have separated forever. They were married in Valencia. Ferdinand afterwards added Galicia, Leon and Oviedo to Castile, and posterity calls him the Great; but it was Rodrigo who gained him the name. A quarrel having arisen between Ferdinand and king Ramiro of Arragon concerning the possession of Calahorra, the latter challenged him to a single combat, and appointed for his substitute the knight Martin Gonzalez. Ferdinand

chose the Cid for his champion, and, by his means, obtained Calahorra. Ferdinand, in his will, divided his dominions among his sons: to Sancho he gave Castile, to Alfonso he gave Leon and Oviedo, and to Garcia, Galicia, together with the conquered part of Portugal. This division caused a war between the brothers, in which Sancho was victorious: this success was owing to the Cid, to whom he had given the command of his forces. Alfonso was taken prisoner, Garcia brought ruin upon himself by his own imprudence, and it remained only to overcome the obstinate resistance of Zamora, where Sancho's sister Urraca ruled. Before the walls of this city Sancho was assassinated, and Alfonso, who, eight months before, was vanquished by the Cid, was called to the throne. It is related, in the ballads, that the Cid read the oath of purification, in the name of the states of Castile, before the new king, on account of the murder of Sancho, with such impressive solemnity, that Alfonso shuddered, but was also offended. It is certain that he spared nothing to gain over the Cid. The story of this warrior requires a critical examination, especially what relates to his marriage. According to history, Alfonso married him to donna Ximene, his niece (in 1074); and consequently it seems we must consider him twice married. John von Müller, the German historian, supposes that the daughter of the proud Gormaz may have been his first Ximene. However that may be, it is certain that the Cid, notwithstanding the important services which he rendered to his king, often experienced the inconstancy of royal favor. A man like him, of strict integrity and virtue, of an inflexible and lofty spirit, who despised an effeminate life, was not fitted for courts. His true friend and brother in arms, Alvaro Hanez Minaya, his wife and child, were his world. The gravity of his countenance excited respect and reverence; his retired life afforded room for the slanders of the courtiers; and he was exposed to frequent reproaches. But, in times of necessity, his assistance was again sought, and he was too generous to remember past offences. The king finally took from him all that he had given him, wife and treasures; but, from shame or fear, he afterwards restored Ximene. Disgraced, plundered, forced to depend on himself alone, Rodrigo was now happier and greater than before. Ever true to his country and his religion, he raised an army by the reputation of his name alone, to subdue the Moors in Va

lencia. In the midst of his career of conquest, he hastened to the assistance of his king, who was hard pressed by Joseph, the founder of Morocco; but the only return for this generosity was new ingratitude. He therefore departed by night, with his most trusty followers, and, forsaken and ill provided, fled from the king. He, however, remained true to himself, and fortune to him. His magnanimity again overcame the king. Permission was given to all to join the forces of the Cid, who still maintained the cause of Spain, and always with distinguished success. Alfonso declared aloud, in the presence of the envious courtiers, "This Cid serves me much better than you," and could no longer be prevented from visiting him. From this time, he was never estranged from him, although he unintentionally promoted the machinations of his enemies. Two brothers, counts of Carrion, had resolved, by a marriage with the daughters of the Cid, to obtain possession of his wealth. The king himself promoted their suit, and the Cid yielded to his wishes. With donna Elvira and donna Sol, they received likewise the great treasures which the arms of the Cid had won. But scarcely had they dismissed their attendants, when, in a wild, mountainous desert, they stripped the garments from the persons of the ladies, bound and beat them till pain choked their cries, and departed with the money. A trusty servant, whom the Cid had sent after them, delivered the ladies from their wretched situation, and the vile deed was brought to light. The Cid demanded justice. Alfonso summoned all the vassals of Leon and Castile to a high court of justice at the city of Toledo. The Cid demanded the restoration of his treasures, and opportunity to take vengeance for the insult, by a combat between the counts of Carrion and the champions whom he should name. They sought to avoid the combat, but the king insisted on it. With ill-concealed fear, they rode to the lists; the knights of the Cid overcame both them and their uncle; their dishonored lives were spared. The last exploit of the Cid was the capture of Saguntum (Murviedro), after which he died at Valencia, in the 74th year of his age (1099). What this hero won, and for many years defended, the united power of Leon and Castile was scarcely able to preserve against the encroachments of the infidels. His widow, therefore, went with the dead body of the hero to Castile. He was buried at the convent of St. Peter of Cardena, in a

tomb which was honored by emperors and kings. There rests the noble Ximene, and under the trees before the convent lies the faithful horse Babieca. The adventures of the Cid, particularly his banishment and return, are the subjects of the oldest Castilian poem, probably composed at the end of the 12th century, Poema del Cid el Campeador, which was published in the Coleccion de Poesias Castellanas anteriores al Siglo XV, of Sanchez, in 1775, and has been reprinted in Schubert's Biblioteca Castellana Portugues y Provenzal. The later ballads, which commemorate the hero, were, at the beginning of the 16th century, collected by Fernando del Castillo, and, in 1614, again published by Pedro de Florez in the Romancero General. There has also been published a collection by Escobar-Historia del muy noble y valeroso Caballero el Cid Ruy Diaz, en Romances (Lisbon, 1615; Seville, 1632). A great number have been published in the Collection of the best Ancient Spanish Historical, Chivalrous and Moorish Poems, by Depping (Altenburg and Leipsic, 1817). There are, in all, above a hundred of these ballads extant. Herder, in his beautiful Cid (Tübingen, 1806), has translated into German 70 of these ballads (probably some of the collection of Escobar). John von Müller has written the life of the Cid (in the 8th volume of his works) from Spanish sources, mostly from an old chronicle printed in Risco's Historia del Cid (Madrid, 1792). Whatever chronicles and songs have conveyed to us of the history of the Cid, is collected in the Chronicle of the Cid, from the Spanish, by Robert Southey (London, 1808, 4to.). CIDER; a liquor made from the juice of apples. The quality of this popular beverage depends principally on the following particulars, viz.-1. kind of fruit; 2. condition of the fruit when ground; 3. manner of grinding and pressing; 4. method of conducting the requisite fermentation, and precautions to be taken against its excess.-1. The characteristics of a good cider-apple (according to Mr. Buel of Albany) are, a red skin, yellow and often tough and fibrous pulp, astringency, dryness, and ripeness at the cidermaking season. Mr. Knight, a famous English horticulturist, asserts, that, "when the rind and pulp are green, the cider will always be thin, weak and colorless; and when these are deeply tinged with yellow, it will, however manufactured, or in whatever soil the fruit may have grown, almost always possess color and either strength or richness." It is observ

ed by Crocker, in his tract on The Art of making and managing Cider, that the most certain indications of the ripeness of apples are the fragrance of their smell, and their spontaneously dropping from the trees. When they are in this state of maturity, in a dry day, the limbs may, he says, be slightly shaken, and partly disburthened of their golden store; thus taking such apples only as are ripe, and leaving the unripe longer on the trees, that they may also acquire a due degree of maturity. Mr. Buel observes, that "the only artificial criterion employed to ascertain the quality of an apple for cider, is the specific gravity of its must, or unfermented juice; or the weight compared with that of water. This, says Knight, indicates, with very considerable accuracy, the strength of the future cider. Its weight and consequent value are supposed to be increased in the ratio of the increase of saccharine matter." Mr. Knight says that the strongest and most highly-flavored cider which has been obtained from the apple, was produced from fruit growing on a shallow loam, on a limestone basis. All the writers on the subject seem to agree that calcareous earth should form a component part of the soil of a ciderorchard. Coxe says the soil which yields good wheat and clover is best for a ciderorchard. Mr. Buel states, "My own observation would induce me also to prefer a dry and somewhat loose soil, in which the roots destined to furnish food for the tree and fruit may penetrate freely, and range extensively in search of nutriment." −2. Condition of the fruit. Fruit should be used when it has attained full maturity, and before it begins to decay. The indications of ripeness we have above stated. Each kind of apple should be manufactured separately, or, at least, those kinds only should be mixed which ripen about the same time. Mr. Buel says, "The apples should ripen on the tree, be gathered when dry, in a cleanly manner, spread in an airy, covered situation, if practicable, for a time, to induce an evaporation of aqueous matter, which will increase the strength and flavor of the liquor, and be separated from rotten fruit, and every kind of filth, before they are ground."-3. Grinding, &c. The apples should be reduced, by the mill, as nearly as possible to a uniform mass, in which the rind and seeds are scarcely discoverable, and the pomace should be exposed to the air. Knight ascertained, by experiments, that, by exposing the reduced pulp to the operation of the atmosphere for a few hours, the spe

cific gravity of the juice increased from 1,064 to 1,078; and, from the experiment being repeated in a closed vessel with atmospheric air, he ascertained the accession to be oxygen, which, according to Lavoisier, constitutes 64 per cent. of sugar. For fine cider, he recommends that the fruit be ground and pressed imperfectly, and that the pulp be then exposed 24 hours to the air, being spread and once or twice turned, to facilitate the absorption of oxygen; that it be then ground again, and the expressed juice be added to it before it is again pressed. A grater cider-mill was presented by J. R. Newell, of Boston, at an exhibition of the Massachusetts agricultural society, in the autumn of 1828, for which he received a premium of 12 dollars. It is thus described by the committee who awarded the premium: "It has a wooden cylinder, upon the surface of which nails are fixed: the heads are sharp upon the edges, and project above the cylinder about one eighth of an inch. The apples are filled into a hopper placed over the cylinder, and led into a narrow cavity at the upper side of it. The cylinder is mounted on a high frame, its axes being placed in composition boxes. A rapid revolution is produced by connecting it with a horsemill by belts or bands. The apples are reduced to a fine pomace, grated, not pressed. It performed well in the presence of the committee, and grated a barrel of russet apples in 1 minute 34 seconds."-4. Fermentation. The vinous fermentation commences and terminates at different periods, according to the condition and quality of the fruit, ard the state of the weather. According to Knight, the best criterion to judge of the proper moment to rack off (or draw the liquor from the scum and sediment), will be the brightness of the liquor which takes place after the discharge of fixed air has ceased, and a thick crust is collected on the surface. The clear liquor should then be drawn off into another cask. If it remains bright and quiet, nothing more need be done to it till the succeeding spring; but if a scum collects on the surface, it must immediately be racked off again, as this would produce bad effects if suffered to sink. Among the precautions used to prevent excessive fermentation is stumming, which is fuming the cask with burning sulphur. This is done by burning a rag impregnated with sulphur in the cask in which the liquor is to be decanted, after it has been partly filled, and rolling it, so as to incorporate the liquor with the

gas. A bottle of French brandy, or half a gallon of cider-brandy, added to a barrel, is likewise recommended, to be added as soon as the vinous fermentation is completed. The best rider manufactured in the U. States is said to be that of Newark, New Jersey, and that produced from an apple mostly cultivated in Virginia, called the Virginia crab-apple.

CIGAR. (See Tobacco, and Cuba.)

CIGNANI, Carlo; a celebrated painter, born at Bologna in 1628; a pupil of Albano. He frequently commenced new works, but was seldom sufficiently satisfied with his productions to consider them as finished. His Flight to Egypt was the work of six months. He knew how to compose, like the Caracci, and to distribute his figures in such a way that his paintings appear larger than they really are. His finest fresco paintings are at St. Michael in Bosco, at Bologna, in ovals supported by angels, and in the saloon of the Farnese palace, where he represented Francis I of France touching for the king's-evil. At Parma, in the ducal garden, he painted several pieces expressive of the power of love, which lose nothing at the side of the paintings of Augustino Caracci. In his painting of the Assumption, at Forli, he has imitated the beautiful Michael of Guido in the cupola at Ravenna, and other fine conceptions of this painter; but in his other pieces he made Correggio his model. He does not so often introduce fore-shortenings as the Lombards; and, in his outlines and drapery, he possesses a finish peculiar to himself. His pencil is powerful, and his coloring lively. Clement XI conferred on him several marks of distinction. Being commissioned to paint the cupola of the church of Madonna del Fuoco, at Forli, he repaired to Forli with his numerous pupils, where he died in 1719. His paintings have been engraved by various artists. Of his pupils, the most distinguished were Crespi, Franceschini, Quaini, count Felix Cignani, his son, and count Paul Cignani, his nephew.

CILICIA, in ancient geography; the region between Pamphylia and Syria, lying S. of mount Taurus. The inhabitants of the coasts were formidable as pirates, and even disturbed the Egæan and Ionian seas. The inhabitants of the northern portion lived in part a nomadic life; those in the east were devoted to agricul ture. Alexander made Cilicia a Macedonian province; it then passed to the Syrians. Pompey subdued its piratical inhabitants. It was governed by kings