of maintaining the degree of warmth necessary to comfort, without additional clothing or fire. Under such circumstances, a sufficient quantity of clothing, of a proper quality, with the apartment moderately warmed and well ventilated, ought to be preferred, for keeping up the requisite degree of warmth, to any means of heating the air of the room so much as to render any increase of clothing unnecessary. To heat the air of an apartment much above the ordinary temperature of the atmosphere, we must shut out the external air; the air also becomes extremely rarefied and dry; which circumstances make it doubly dangerous to pass from it to the cold, raw, external air. But in leaving a moderately well warmed room, if properly clothed, the change is not felt; and the full advantage of exercise is derived from any opportunity of taking it that may occur.-The only kind of dress that can afford the protection required by the changes of temperature to which high northern climates are liable, is woollen. Nor will it be of much avail that woollen be worn, unless so much of it be worn, and it be so worn, as effectually to keep out the cold. Those who would receive the advantage which the wearing of woollen is capable of affording, must wear it next the skin; for it is in this situation only that its health-preserving power can be felt. The great advantages of woollen cloth are briefly these:-the readiness with which it allows the escape of the matter of perspiration through its texture; its power of preserving the sensation of warmth to the skin under all circumstances; the difficulty there is in making it thoroughly wet; the slowness with which it conducts heat; the softness, lightness and pliancy of its texture. Cotton cloth, though it differs but little from linen, approaches nearer to the nature of woollen, and, on that account, must be esteemed as the next best substance of which clothing may be made. Silk is the next in point of excellence, but it is very inferior to cotton in every respect. Linen possesses the contrary of most of the properties enumerated as excellences in woollen. It retains the matter of perspiration in its texture, and speedily becomes imbued with it; it gives an unpleasant sensation of cold to the skin; it is very readily saturated with moisture, and it conducts heat too rapidly. It is, indeed, the worst of all the substances in use, being the least qualified to answer the purposes of clothing. There are several prevailing errors in the mode of adapting

clothes to the figure of the body, particularly amongst females. Clothes should be so made as to allow the body the full exercise of all its motions. The neglect of this precaution is productive of more mischief than is generally believed. The misery and suffering arising from it begin while we are yet in the cradle. When they have escaped from the nurses' hands, boys are left to nature. Girls have, for a while, the same chance as boys, in a freedom from bandages of all kinds; but, as they approach to womanhood, they are again put into trammels in the forms of stays. The bad consequences of the pressure of stays are not immediately obvious, but they are not the less certain on that account. The girl writhes and twists to avoid the pinching which must necessarily attend the commencement of wearing stays tightly laced. The posture in which she finds ease is the one in which she will constantly be, until, at last, she will not be comfortable in any other, even when she is freed from the pressure that originally obliged her to adopt it. In this way most of the deformities to which young people are subject originate; and, unfortunately, it is not often that they are perceived until they have become considerable, and have existed too long to admit of remedy.

CLOTILDE DE VALLON CHALIS, Marguerite Eléonore; born at Vallon, a castle on the Ardeche, in Languedoc, in the year 1405. The poems of this lady, which have been preserved, did not make their appearance till 1803. At the age of 11, she translated a poem of Petrarch into verse. Fortunate circumstances, particularly her acquaintance with several distinguished female poets of her time, unfolded her poetical talents. In 1421, she married Berenger de Surville, a young knight, who was soon obliged to follow the dauphin (Charles VII) to Puy-en-Velay. On the occasion of this separation, she composed a beautiful poem, which takes the first rank amongst her works. After being married seven years, she lost her husband, who fell before Orleans. After this, she occupied her time with the education of young females possessed of poetical talent. Among these were Sophie de Lyonna and Juliette de Vivarez. By chance, she became acquainted with Margaret of Scotland, wife of the dauphin Louis. In consequence of a poem which she composed in praise of duke Philip the Good, Margaret sent her a crown of artificial laurel, with silver leaves, and interwoven with 12 golden flowers; but Clotilde

would not listen to the pressing invitations which she received to appear at court. In 1495, she commemorated, in a poem, the triumphs of Charles VIII. The year of her death is not known. Her poems, which are distinguished for delicacy and grace, appear to have been lost, when one of her descendants, Joseph Etienne de Surville (who, in 1798, was shot as a secretly returned emigrant), a man himself possessed of a talent for poetry, on searching the archives of his family, discovered, in 1782, the hand-writing of Clotilde. With difficulty he deciphered the writing, studied the language, and soon found his pains richly rewarded. On his emigration, in 1791, he left the manuscript of Clotilde behind him, which, with many other family records, became a prey to the flames. The copies, which had been previously taken of several pieces, came from his widow into the hands of the present publisher, M. Vanderbourg. The genuineness of these poems is not to be doubted, although it is apparent that, in some instances, M. de Surville has ventured to make alterations.

CLÔTURE, LA (the close); the term used in the French chamber of deputies, when one party insists upon having a discussion closed, and the vote taken. Though it cannot be denied, that the French improve in parliamentary skill, yet they are very far from parliamentary order, we might say decency, compared with the example of England and the U. States. This is principally owing to two causes: the first is want of experience. Parliamentary proprieties are things which cannot be regulated by orders and decrees, because great strictness of rule injures the freedom which gives value to parliamentary proceedings. They must be learned by practice, and rest on the convictions of the opposition, as well as of the other party. The second cause is the violence of parties. Neither in England nor in the U. States do there exist parties so entirely and essentially opposed as in France. No political partisan in England or the U. States thinks of destroying the constitution. The animosity, therefore, between parties cannot be, in either of these countries, so great as in France. The consequence of this is, that the opposition, or liberal party, in the French chambers, give vent to their feelings, and the administration party will not listen, but call, Aux voix! La clôture! during the speeches of their opponents, and not unfrequently make a noise similar to that of the Polish diet, and very much out of place in a deliberative body. The 23

VOL. III.

president of the chamber rings his bell, and sometimes closes the session, because he cannot restore order. The réglement of the chambre does not appear to be the cause of this disorder. It is dated June 25, 1814, and is an imitation of the English usages. This body of rules, with those for the chamber of peers, given July 2, 1814, and the law of Aug. 13, 1814, respecting the forms in which the king communicates with the chambers, and they with each other, are not in the Bulletin des Lois; they are contained in Lanjuinais' Constitutions de la Nation Française, Paris, 1819.

CLOUD. The clouds are aqueous vapors, which hover at a considerable height above the surface of the earth. They differ from fogs only by their height and less degree of transparency. The cause of the latter circumstance is the thinness of the atmosphere in its higher regions, where the particles of vapor become condensed, The varieties of clouds are numerous. Some cast a shade which covers the sky, and, at times, produces a considerable darkness; others resemble a light veil, and permit the rays of the sun and moon to pass through them. Clouds originate like fogs. The watery evaporations which rise from seas, lakes, ponds, rivers, and, in fact, from the whole surface of the earth, ascend, on account of their elasticity and lightness, in the atmosphere, until the air becomes so cold and thin that they can rise no higher, but are condensed. Philosophers, however, are of very different opinions respecting the way in which the condensation and the whole formation of the clouds proceed. De Luc, whose theory is considered the most probable, believes that the water, after its ascent in the form of vapors, and before it takes the shape of clouds, exists in a gaseous state, not affecting the hygrometer, which is the reason why the air, in the higher regions, is always dry. He explains the clouds to be collections of small vesicles, in the transformation of which from the gaseous state, he believes that caloric operates, in part at least, because, according to his opinion, clouds communicate a degree of heat to the body which they render damp. According to Hube, clouds are collections of precipitated bubbles, and differ by their negative electricity from fogs, the electricity of which is generally positive. If clouds and fogs lose their electricity, rain is produced. These explanations are, however, by no means perfectly satisfactory. More on this subject is to be found in Mayer's Lehrbuch über die Physische Astronomie, Theorie der Erde und Meteorologie, Göt

tingen, 1805. The change of winds contributes essentially to the formation of clouds and fogs. In countries where this change is small and infrequent, as between the tropics, these phenomena of humidity in the atmosphere must be comparatively rare, but, when they happen, the more violent, because a great quantity of vapor has had time to collect. The distance of the clouds from the surface of the

earth is very different. Thin and light

clouds are higher than the highest mountains; thick and heavy clouds, on the contrary, touch low mountains, steeples, and even trees. The average height of the clouds is calculated to be two miles and a half. Their size is likewise very different. Some have been found occupying an extent of 20 square miles, and their thickness, in some cases, has been ascertained, by travellers, who have ascended mountains, to be a thousand feet: others are very thin, and of small dimensions. The natural history of clouds, not as respects their chemical structure, but their forms, their application to meteorology, and a knowledge of the weather, has been well treated by Lucas Howard, in his Essay on Clouds. He distributes clouds into three essentially different formations. These formations are-1. cirrus, consisting of fibres which diverge in all directions; 2. cumulus, convex and conical aggregates, which increase from a horizontal basis upwards; 3. stratus, layers vastly extended, connected and horizontal. The clouds are generally assigned to three atmospherical regions, the upper, the middle and the lower one, to which a fourth, the lowest, may be added. In the upper region, the atmosphere is in such a state, that it can receive and sustain aqueous matter dissolved into its integrant parts. This state of the atmosphere corresponds to the highest state of the barometer. To this region belongs the cirrus, which has the least density, but the greatest height, and variety of shape and direction. It is the first indication of serene and settled weather, and first shows itself in a few fibres, spreading through the atmosphere. These fibres by degrees increase in length, and new fibres attach themselves to the sides. The duration of the cirrus is uncertain, from a few minutes to several hours. It lasts longer, if it appears alone, and at a great height; a shorter time, if it forms in the neighborhood of other clouds. The middle region is the seat of cumulus, which is generally the most condensed, and moves with the stream of air nearest to the earth. This region can re

ceive much humidity, but not in perfect solution. The humidity becomes collected, and shows itself in masses rising conically, and resting on the third region. The appearance, increase and disappearance of the cumulus, in fine weather, are often periodical, and correspondent to the degree of heat. Generally, it forms a few hours after sunrise, attains its highest degree in the hottest hours of the afternoon, and decreases and vanishes at sun-set. Great masses of cumulus, during high winds, in the quarter of the heavens towards which the wind blows, indicate approaching calm and rain. If the cumulus does not disappear, but rises, a thunderstorm is to be expected during the night. If the upper region, with its drying power, predominates, the upper parts of the cumulus become cirrus. But, if the lower region predominates (into which the densest vapors are attracted and dissolved into drops), the basis of the cumulus sinks, and the cloud becomes stratus, which is of moderate density, and its lower surface rests generally upon the earth or the water. This is the proper evening cloud, and appears first towards sunset. To this belong also those creeping fogs, which, in calm evenings, ascend from the valleys, and extend themselves in undulating masses. The stratus remains quiet, and accumulates layers, till at last it falls as rain. This phenomenon-the dissolution of clouds into rain-is called nimbus. Howard further makes subdivisions, as, cirro-cumulus, cirrostratus, &c. Also the real stratus, the horizontal layer of clouds, sometimes rises higher than at other times, which depends on the season, the polar height of the place, or the heights of mountains: the cumulus is also sometimes higher and sometimes lower. On the whole, however, the different kinds remain one above another. Th. Forster has followed Howard in his investigations respecting the clouds, and Göthe, the German poet, has made an application of this theory in his work entitled Zur Naturwissenschaft, vol. i.

CLOUD, ST.; a charmingly situated village, two leagues E. from Paris, in the department of Seine-and-Oise, with a royal castle and magnificent garden, which were much embellished by Napoleon. On the 7th of September, and some days following, perhaps a sixth part of the population of Paris is assembled here, full of gayety, attending the fair, which affords a striking picture of a certain class of the French people. As the residence of the monarch of France, St. Cloud is historically interesting. Many events in the civil dis

turbances of that country are connected with this place. Here Henry III was murdered by Clement (q. v.), Aug. 2, 1589; and, in modern times, it has been rendered famous by the revolution of the 18th of Brumaire, which destroyed the directory, and established the consular government. Napoleon chose St. Cloud for his residence; hence the expression, cabinet of St. Cloud. Under the former government, the phrase was cabinet of Versailles, or cabinet of the Tuileries. In 1814, St. Cloud was besieged, March 31, by the van-guard of the army of the allies under Langeron. April 7, the headquarters of the allied armies were there, and remained there until June 3. In 1815, Blücher had his head-quarters at St. Cloud; and here also was concluded the military convention (July 3, 1815), by which Paris fell a second time into the hands of the allies. Bignon, Guilleminot and count Bondi acted on the part of France, general Müffling (the same who was, in 1829, a mediator between Russia and Turkey, at Constantinople, sent there by the king of Prussia) for Prussia, colonel Hervey for England. The dubious sense of several points determined in the convention afterwards occasioned mutual reproaches.

CLOVE. The clove is the unexpanded flower-bud of an East Indian tree (caryophillus aromaticus), somewhat resembling the laurel in its height, and in the shape of its leaves. The leaves are in pairs, oblong, large, spear-shaped, and of a brightgreen color. The flowers grow in clusters, which terminate the branches, and have the calyx divided into four small and pointed segments. The petals are small, rounded, and of a bluish color; and the seed is an oval berry. In the Molucca islands, where the raising of different spices was formerly carried on by the Dutch colonists to great extent, the culture of the clove-tree was a very important pursuit. It has even been asserted, that, in order to secure a lucrative branch of commerce in this article to themselves, they destroyed all the trees growing in other islands, and confined the propagation of them to that of Ternate. But it appears that, in 1770 and 1772, both clove and nutmeg-trees were transplanted from the Moluccas into the islands of France and Bourbon, and subsequently into some of the colonies of South America, where they have since been cultivated with great success. At a certain season of the year, the clove-tree produces a vast profusion of flowers. When these have attained the length of about half an inch, the four points of the calyx being prominent, and

having, in the middle of them, the leaves of the petals folded over each other, and forming a small head about the size of a pea, they are in a fit state to be gathered. This operation is performed betwixt the months of October and February, partly by the hand, partly by hooks, and partly by beating the trees with bamboos. The cloves are either received on cloths spread beneath the trees, or are suffered to fall on the ground, the herbage having been previously cut and swept for that purpose. They are subsequently dried by exposure for a while to the smoke of wood fires, afterwards to the rays of the sun. When first gathered, they are of a reddish color, but, by drying, they assume a deep-brown cast. This spice yields a very fragrant odor, and has a bitterish, pungent, and warm taste. It is sometimes employed as a hot and stimulating medicine, but is more frequently used in culinary preparations. When fresh gathered, cloves will yield, on pressure, a fragrant, thick, and reddish oil; and, by distillation, a limpid essential oil. Oil of cloves is used by many persons, though very improperly, for curing the tooth-ache; since, from its pungent quality, it is apt to corrode the gums and injure the adjacent teeth. When the tooth is carious, and will admit of it, a bruised clove is much to be preferred.

CLOVE BARK, or CULILAWAN BARK (cortex lauri culilawan) is furnished by a tree of the Molucca islands. It is in pieces more or less long, almost flat, thick, fibrous, covered with a white epidermis, of a reddish-yellow inside, of a nutmeg and clove odor, and of an aromatic and sharp taste. It is one of the substitutes for cinnamon, but not much used. We find, also, in commerce, under the name of clove bark, another bark furnished by the myrthus caryophillata (Lin.). It is in sticks two feet long, formed of several pieces of very thin and hard bark, rolled up one over the other, of a deep brown color, of a taste similar to that of cloves. It possesses the same properties as the former barks, and may be considered as a substitute for them.

CLOVER (trifolium). The clovers are a very numerous family. Some botanists reckon no less than 55 species belonging to the genus of which cultivated clovers are varieties. The following are most used:— 1. Pratense, or common red clover. This is a biennial, and sometimes, especially on chalky soils, a triennial plant. This is the kind most commonly cultivated, as it yields a larger product than any of the other sorts. The soil best adapted to clo

ver is a deep, sandy loam, which is favor able to its long tap-roots; but it will grow in any soil not too moist. So congenial is calcarious matter to clover, that the mere strewing of lime on some soils will call into action clover-seeds, which, it would appear, have laid dormant for ages. It is a recommendation of this grass, that it is adapted to a soil suitable to scarcely any other kind of grass-to land which is dry, light, sandy, or composed mostly of gravel. Clover-seed should be sowed in the spring, except in climates where there are no severe winter frosts. The young plants which come up in autumn cannot bear the frost so well as those which have had a whole summer to bring them to maturity. Spring wheat is a very good crop with which to sow clover and other grassseed. It is recommended to sow the grassseed, and plough or harrow it in with the wheat. If it be scattered on the surface without being well covered, a part does not vegetate, and that which does will be liable to injury from drought. Cloverseed may also be sown in the spring on winter grain, and harrowed in. European writers agree with American cultivators, that the harrowing will do no damage, but will be of service to the grain. The author of a valuable work, entitled a Treatise on Agriculture, lately published in Albany, directs 10 or 12 pounds of clover-seed to be sown on an acre, if the soil be rich, and double that quantity if it be poor. He condemns the practice of mixing the seeds of timothy, rye, grass, &c. with that of clover, "because these grasses neither rise nor ripen at the same time." Another practice, equally bad (according to this writer), "is that of sowing cloverseed on winter grain before the earth has acquired a temperature favorable to vegetation, and when there can be no doubt but that two thirds of the seeds will perish." Clover-seed of a bright yellow, with a good quantity of purple and brown colored seed amongst it, which shows its maturity, should be preferred. When perfectly ripe and well gathered, its power of vegetation will continue for four or five years. Two sorts of machines are described in the Transactions of the New York Agricultural Society, for gathering clover-seed. One of these machines consists of an open box about four feet square at the bottom, and about three feet in height on three sides; to the fore part, which is open, fingers are fixed, about three feet in length, and so near as to break off the heads from the clover-stocks between them, which are thrown back as

the box advances. The box is fixed on an axle-tree, supported by small wheels, with handles fixed to the hinder part, by which the driver, while managing the horse, raises or depresses the fingers of the machine, so as to take off the heads of the grass. The other machine, called a cradle, is made of an oak board about 18 inches in length and 10 in breadth. The fore part of it, to the length of 9 inches, is sawed into fingers; a handle is inserted behind, inclined towards them, and a cloth put round the back part of the board, which is cut somewhat circular, and raised on the handle; this collects the heads or tops of the grass, and prevents them from scattering as they are struck off by the cradle, which may be made of different sizes,-being smaller in proportion for women and children, who, by means of it, may likewise collect large quantities.-2. Trifolium repens, or white clover. This also thrives best in light land. It is a natural grass of the U. States, but, when sown by itself, it, rarely grows tall enough to be well cut with a sithe. When mixed with timothy or green grass (poa viridis), it makes excellent hay. Clover requires much attention to make it into hay. Its stalks are so succulent, that the leaves, which are the best part, are apt to crumble and waste away before the hay is well dried. It has, therefore, been recommended to cart it to the mow or stack before the stalks are dry, and either to put it up with alternate layers of hay and straw, or to salt it at the rate of from half a bushel to a whole bushel per ton. Green clover is good for swine. The late judge Peters, of Pennsylvania, observed, "In summer, my hogs chiefly run on clover. Swine feeding on clover in the fields will thrive wonderfully; when those (confined or not) fed on cut clover will fall away." (Mem. Penn. Agr. Soc. vol. ii. p. 33.)

CLOVIS, king of the Franks, born 465, succeeded his father, Childeric, in 481, as chief of the warlike tribe of Salian Franks, who inhabited a barren country between the sea and the Scheldt. This tribe, at a former period, had made incursions into the neighboring territories, but were driven back into their forests and morasses. Clovis, therefore, united with Ragnacaire, king of Cambray, and declared war upon Syagrius (son of Aetius), the Roman governor at Soissons. The Romans were entirely routed near Soissons, in 486. Syagrius fled to Toulouse, to the court of Alaric, king of the Goths, whose cowardly counsellors delivered him up to Clovis, by whom he was put to death. Soissons