ly observed in the Catholic church since the reformation than it was before. One reason of this is, that many incontinent clergymen have left the Catholic church, and entered into one which allowed them to marry. Another reason is, that the Protestant reformation aroused the attention of the Catholic church to the necessity of a reform in its own body, and the observance of a stricter discipline. Hence few such public scandals have occurred as in former times, and transgression has been followed by immediate punishment. Yet it is not to be denied, that the rule of celibacy is often violated. Such transgressions are to be expected, particularly at a time when education and so many other circumstances tend to increase the influence of luxury; yet the far greater part of the Catholic clergy respect the rule of celibacy at the present day. Among the reasons against requiring celibacy in the clergy, is the increasing scarcity of men willing to devote themselves to a profession which requires such strict self-denial.

[The foregoing article, written by a Catholic, presents the views entertained on the subject of celibacy by the members of that communion. To those not educated in that church, it appears exceedingly difficult to comprehend why a rule of life not enjoined by any express command or divine law, and which contravenes the dictates of nature and the obligations of society, should be regarded as of such importance to the excellence of the priesthood. That it would attach them more devotedly to the secular interests of the church, there can be no doubt; but that they would be as capable of ministering to the spiritual necessities of the people as those who are experienced in the feelings of the people, through their social connexions, we should find it very difficult to believe.]

CELL; generally employed to designate an apartment used as a storehouse for wines, &c., and commonly under ground. The same term has various applications under different circumstances. Thus cella was used, by the Roman poets, to signify the lodge or habitation of common prostitutes, these being anciently under ground (see Juvenal, sat. vi, ver. 121), having the names of the inmates over the doors. The name of cell was also used for the lodgings of servants, among the Romans; for the apartments of the public baths; for the adyta or inmost and most retired parts of the temples, where the images of the gods were preserved. The term cell

was also applied to a lesser or subordinate minster, dependent upon a greater, by which it was erected and under whose government it remained. The great ancient English abbeys had generally such cells in distant places, which were accountable to, and received their superiors from them. The apartments or private dormitories of monks and nuns are also called cells.—In technology, the term cell is employed very frequently to signify any small compartment into which substances are divided; thus the hexagonal chambers of the honey-comb are called cells, as in botany the cavities, separated by partitions in the pods, husks or seed-vessels of plants, which are said to be unilocular, bilocular, trilocular, &c., according to, the number of cells.-In anatomy, it is applied to various small cavities, such as the aircells, or pulmonary vesicles, the adipose cells, or spaces in the membrane which retains the fat, &c. The loose, inflatable texture, which unites and surrounds all the parts and organs of the body, has the name of cellular, from its being made up of a succession of these little membranous interstices.

CELLAMARE (Antonio Giudice, duke of Giovenazzo), prince of, born at Naples, 1657, and educated at the court of Charles II of Spain, made several campaigns, and was in the Spanish service during the greater part of the war of the Spanish succession, till he fell into the hands of the imperialists, in 1707, who kept him prisoner in Milan till 1712, when he was exchanged. On his return to Spain, he was made a cabinet minister, and, in 1715, ambassador extraordinary to the French court. Here he became the chief instrument of the designs of Alberoni, and the soul of a conspiracy against the regent, Philip of Orleans. A plot was formed for arresting the regent at a festival, calling together the states-general of the kingdom, and declaring Philip V regent, who, having thus become master of Spain and France, would have made the rest of Europe tremble. Cellamare was only waiting for further orders from his court, when the plan was discovered, and his letters, having been intercepted, revealed the parties engaged in the conspiracy. He was arrested, and conducted, under an escort, to the Spanish frontiers. The court of Madrid made him captain-general of Old Castile. He died at Seville, in 1733.

CELLARIUS, Christopher, one of the most learned philologists of the 17th century, was born in 1638. After he had

studied at several German universities, he taught moral philosophy and the Oriental languages at Weissenfels. In 1673, he was made rector of the school at Weimar, and afterwards of the seminaries at Zeitz and Merseburg, and, finally, professor of eloquence and history at Halle, where he died in 1707. He published a great number of ancient authors, with learned annotations and very accurate indexes, as, for instance, the letters of Cicero and of Pliny, Cornelius Nepos, Curtius, Eutropius, Sextus Rufus, Velleius Paterculús, the 12 ancient panegyrists, Minucius Felix, Silius Italicus, &c. His own compositions relate to ancient history and geography, Roman antiquities, and the Latin language.

CELLINI, Benvenuto; a sculptor, engraver and goldsmith; born at Florence, in 1500, where he died in 1570; distinguished particularly by his works in gold and silver, which have become very rare, and are sold at present at immense prices. Of a bold, honest and open character, but vain and quarrelsome, and impatient of encroachment and dependence, he was often entangled in quarrels, which frequently cost his antagonists their lives. He himself incurred great dangers, was put into prison, and was saved only by his boldness and the powerful protectors whom his talents as an artist procured him. At the siege of Rome (if we believe his own account, given in his autobiography), he killed, with one cannon shot, the constable of Bourbon, and, with another, the prince of Orange. He was afterwards imprisoned on the charge of having stolen the jewels of the papal crown, which were intrusted to him during the siege, and was released only by the interference of Francis I, whose court he visited, and executed there several works. He afterwards returned to Florence, and, under the patronage of Cosmo, made a Perseus with the head of Medusa, in bronze, which is still an ornament of the market-place; also a statue of Christ, in the chapel of the Pitti palace, besides many excellent dies for coins and medals. In his 58th year, he wrote his own life in Latin, with equal candor and vanity. It has been translated, in a masterly manner, by Göthe, into German. There is also an English translation by doctor Nugent, 1771; new edition by Thomas Roscoe, 1822. It contains striking descriptions of Cellini's own adventures, and of the characters of the persons with whom he came in contact. Among his other writings, the most important are Due Trattati, uno intorno

alle otto principali Arti dell' Oreficeria, l'altro in Materia dell' Arte della Scoltura (best edition, 1731). His style is free, strong and original, and the academy della Crusca often quotes him as a classic.

CELLULAR SUBSTANCE, or CELLULAR MEMBRANE (tela cellulosa or mucosa of Latin writers), is the medium which connects and supports all the various parts and structures of the body. Any person may gain a general notion of this substance by observing it in joints of veal, when it is inflated by the butchers. It consists of an assemblage of fibres and lamina of animal matter, connected with each other so as to form innumerable cells or small cavities, from which its name of cellular is derived. It pervades every part of the animal structure. By joining together the minute fibrils of muscle, tendon or nerve, it forms obvious and visible fibres. It collects these fibres into large fasciculi, and, by joining such fasciculi, or bundles, to each other, constitutes an entire muscle, tendon or nerve. It joins together the individual muscles, and is collected in their intervals. It surrounds each vessel and nerve in the body, often connecting these parts together by a firm kind of capsule, and, in a looser form, joining them to the neighboring muscles, &c. When condensed into a firm and compact structure, it constitutes the various membranes of the body, which, by long maceration in water, may be resolved into a loose, cellular texture. In the bones, it forms the basis or ground-work of their fabric, a receptacle, in the interstices of which the earth of bone is deposited. As cellular substance is entirely soluble in boiling water, it is considered, by chemists, as that peculiar modification of animal matter termed gelatine. In consequence of its solution by the united agencies of heat and moisture, the muscular fibres separate from each other, and form the other structures of the body. This effect is seen in meat which is subjected to long boiling or stewing for the table, or, indeed, in a joint which is merely over-boiled. It forms a connexion and passage between all parts of the body, however remote in situation or dissimilar in structure; for the cells of this substance every where communicate, as we may collect from facts of the most common and familiar occurrence. emphysema, where air escapes from the lungs wounded by a broken rib into the cellular substance, it spreads rapidly from the chest into the most remote parts of the body, and has even been known to gain admission into the eye-ball. A simi

In

lar diffusion of this fluid may be effected by artificial inflation.

CELSUS, Aurelius Cornelius, lived, probably, under the reign of Augustus. He has been called the Roman Hippocrates, because he imitated the Greek physician, and introduced the Hippocratic system into Rome. He also wrote on rhetoric, the art of war and agriculture. He is, however, best known as a medical writer. His style is elegant, concise, and, nevertheless, very clear. His work on medicine is an inexhaustible source, from which other good authors have drawn materials for writings, both medical and surgical. He has furnished subsequent writers with a multitude of authorities for the support of their different theories, but has suffered much arbitrary interpretation. Hippocrates and Asclepiades are the two authors whom he has followed most. More than 59 editions of his 8 books De Medicina had appeared in 1785; the first at Florence, 1478, fol.: the best is by Krause, Leipsic, 1766: that of Targa was printed at Padua, 1769, 4to., and one at Verona, 1810, 4to.

CELTE (they called themselves, also, Gael, or Gales; see Gael); one of the four chief nations which inhabited Gallia. Their territory extended from the extreme point of Brittany to the Rhine and the Alps. The Romans, therefore, called the whole country Celtica, or Galatia. They left Asia at some distant period, and, at the time of Tarquinius Priscus, came, under Bellovesus, to Upper Italy, and large numbers of them spread over several countries of Europe. In Spain, they became mingled with the Iberians, whom they conquered. Internal wars weakened them; and commerce with the Romans, and with the people of Marseilles, made them more civilized. The Italian Celta were subjected, 220 B. C., by the Romans. The Boii united themselves with the Helvetii; the Illyrian Celta with the Illyrians. Their government was aristocratical. The nobles formed a national assembly. The commons were regarded as little better than slaves. They were large, and of great bodily strength, impetuous in their attacks, but not well able to endure hardships. A huge sword, generally of copper, was their chief weapon. Their priests, the Druids (q. v.), enjoyed the greatest authority.

CELTES, Conrad ; born, in 1459, at Protuch, in Franconia. His original name was Meissel, which he changed into Celtes Protucius. He ran away from his parents, and studied in Cologne. In 1484

and 1485, he studied under the tuition of Rodolph Agricola, at Heidelberg, and became a philologist and Latin poet. He then travelled to Italy, where he attended the lectures of the most learned teachers of his time. On his return through Illyria, Hungary and Poland, he was taught astronomy and astrology by Albertus Brutus, and met with the most favorable reception at the German courts. In Nuremburg, he was crowned by the emperor Frederic III (1491), on account of the reputation which he had acquired by his Latin poems, being the first German poet who received this honor. He afterwards travelled for 10 years, visiting all the universities in Germany, and found, at length, a resting-place in Vienna, where Maximilian I appointed him, in 1501, professor of poetry and rhetoric, and president of the faculty established for the study of classical antiquities. He left a history and description of Nuremburg, a poem on the situation and manners of Germany, several philosophical, rhetorical and biographical works, and a number of poems. He considered the study of languages, not, like other philologists of his time, as an object of pursuit in itself, but only as a means for obtaining an acquaintance with those sciences which have a more immediate bearing on the business of life, among which he placed history and ge ography first. His plan for a great literary society (sodalitas Celtica), for which he had already obtained grants of privileges from the emperor, was interrupted by his death in 1508. Only the Rhenish society, which he founded in Heidelberg, outlived him.

CELTIBERI, or CELTIBERIANS; inhabitants of Celtiberia, a country along the Iberus, in the north-east part of Spain. They formed the most numerous tribe in Spain, and originated from Iberians mixed with Celts. They were brave, and their cuneus was formidable even to the Romans. They despised agriculture. After a long resistance to the Romans, they were, at last, in the Sertorian war, subjected to their sovereignty, adopted their manners, language, dress, &c. They were divided into six tribes-the Bellones, Arevaci, Peleudones, north of the Durius; and the Lusones, Belli and Ditthi, more to the south.

CEMENTATION; a chemical process, in which a metal (and often other bodies) is placed in connexion with other substances, often in layers (stratum super stratum), in close vessels, that the former may be separated from its combinations, or changed (frequently oxydated), at a high tempera

ture. The substance with which the metal or other body is surrounded is called cement-powder. In cementing gold, the alloy is beaten into thin plates, and placed in alternate layers, with a cement containing nitrate of potass and sulphate of iron. The whole is then exposed to heat, until a great part of the alloying metals are removed by the action of the nitric acid liberated by the nitre. Iron is cemented with charcoal-powder and other substances, and thereby converted into steel. Glass is changed, by cementation with gypsum, into Réaumur's porcelain. Copper is cemented with a powder of calamine and charcoal, and thereby converted into brass. The copper obtained from the sulphate of copper, by precipitation with iron, is called cement-copper.

CEMENTS. The substances used for producing cohesion between different materials are very various. They are mostly, however, soft or semi-fluid, and harden in the course of time. The number employed is very great. We can mention only a few. The joints of iron pipes, and the flanges of steam-engines, are cemented with a mixture composed of sulphur and muriate of ammonia, together with a large quantity of iron chippings. The putty of glaziers is a mixture of linseed oil and powdered chalk. Plaster of Paris, dried by heat, and mixed with water, or with rosin and wax, is used for uniting pieces of marble. A cement composed of brickdust and rosin, or pitch, is employed by turners, and some other mechanics, to confine the material on which they are working. Common paint, made of white lead and oil, is used to cement China-ware. So also are resinous substances, such as mastic and shell lac, or isinglass dissolved in proof-spirit or water. The paste of bookbinders and paper-hangers is made by boiling flour. Rice-glue is made by boiling ground rice in soft water to the consistence of a thin jelly. Wafers are made of flour, isinglass, yeast and white of eggs, dried in thin layers upon tin plates, and cut by a circular instrument. They are colored by red-lead, &c. Sealing-wax is composed of shell lac and rosin, and is commonly colored with vermilion. Common glue is most usually employed for uniting wood, and similar porous substances. It does not answer for surfaces not porous, such as those of the metals, and is not durable if exposed to water. The cements mostly used in building are composed of lime and sand. Lime is procured by burning substances in which it exists in combination with carbonic acid,

The

such as limestone, marbles, chalk and shells. By this process, the carbonic acid is driven off, and quicklime is obtained. The quicklime is slaked by mixture with water, after which it swells and cracks, becomes hot, and assumes the form of a white and impalpable powder. This is a hydrate of lime, and contains about three parts of lime to one of water. When intended for mortar, it should be immediately mixed with sand, and used without delay, before it imbibes carbonic acid anew from the atmosphere. The lime adheres to and unites the particles of the sand. Cements thus made increase in strength and solidity for an indefinite period. Fresh sand, wholly silicious and sharp, is the best. That taken from the sea-shore is unfit for making mortar, as the salt is apt to deliquesce and weaken the mortar. amount of sand is always greater than that of the lime. From two to four parts of sand are used, according to the quality of the lime and the labor bestowed on it. Water cements, called also Roman cements, harden under water, and consolidate almost immediately on being mixed. Cornmon mortar dissolves or crumbles away if laid under water before it has had time to harden; but certain rocks, which have an argillaceous as well as a silicious character, communicate to lime or mortar the property of hardening in a very few minutes, both in and out of water. The ancient Romans, in making their water cements, employed a peculiar earth, obtained at the town of Puteoli. This they called pulvis Puteolanus. It is the same that is now called Puzzolana. It is evidently of volcanic origin. The Dutch, in their great aquatic structures, have mostly employed a substance denominated tarras, terras, or trass, found near Andernach, in the vicinity of the Rhine. It is said to be a kind of decomposed basalt, but resembles Puzzolana. It is very durable in water, but inferior to the other kinds in the open air. Baked clay and the common greenstone afford the basis of very tolerable water cements, when mixed with lime. Some of the ores of manganese may be used for the same purpose. Some limestones, calcined and mixed with sand and water, also afford water cements, usually in consequence of containing some argillaceous earth. Some cements, of great hardness and permanency, have been obtained from mixtures, into which animal and vegetable substances enter, such as oil, milk, mucilage, &c. The name of maltha or mastic is given them. They are not much used.

CEMETERY. In the article BuryingGround, we have given the history of the custom of interring the dead, and shall only mention, in this place, two cemeteries, perhaps the most interesting which ever existed. One of them is the common place of burial of the ancient Egyptians, which was situated beyond the lake Acherusia, or Acharejish, the name of which signified the last condition of man, and which probably is the foundation of the Greek fables respecting lake Acheron. On the borders of lake Acherusia, a tribunal, composed of 42 judges, was established, to inquire into the life and character of the deceased. Without this examination, a corpse could not be carried to the cemetery beyond the lake. If the deceased had died insolvent, the court adjudged the corpse to his creditors, in order to oblige his relations and friends to redeem it. If his life had been wicked, they refused his body the privilege of solemn burial, and it was consequently carried and thrown into a large ditch made for the purpose, which received the appellation of Tartar, on account of the lamentations which this sentence produced among the surviving friends and relations. The Greek Tartarus had its origin in this Egyptian Tartar. If no accuser appeared, or the accusations were found groundless, the judges decreed the regular burial, and the eulogium of the deceased was pronounced amongst the applauses of the bystanders. In this, his talents, virtues, accomplishments, every thing except his rank and riches, were praised. To carry the corpse to the cemetery, it was necessary to cross the lake, and to pay a small sum for the passage. This circumstance also was transplanted into the Greek my thology. The cemetery was a large plain, surrounded by trees, and intersected by canals, to which was given the appellation Elisout, or Elisiæns, meaning rest. Every one recognises, in this description, the Greek Charon, his boat, his ferry-money, and the Elysian fields. The whole ceremony of interment seems to have consisted in depositing the mummy in the excavation made in the rock, or under the sand which covered the whole Elisout: then it seems that the relations of the deceased threw three handfuls of sand, as a sign to the workmen to fill up the cavity, after uttering three loud farewells. (See Lectures on Hieroglyphics and Egyptian Antiquities, by the marquis Spineto, London, 1829.)-Another cemetery of great interest is that of Père Lachaise (see Lachaise), in the north-west part of Paris,

not far from the barrière des Amandiers. This city of the dead has a superficies of more than 51 arpents, and contains a great variety of tombs, some of a touching simplicity, with the marks of unaffected grief, while others remind us of the words of St. Augustine: "Curatio funeris, conditio sepultura, pompa exequiarum, magis vivorum solatia quam subsidia mortuorum." Columns, obelisks, pyramids, funeral vases, monuments of all kinds, and flowers, cover this cemetery, but point out a few only of those who rest in this last abode of many generations. Here repose Heloise and Abelard, the conqueror of Esslingen, Delille, Molière, La Fontaine and Foy, amid a crowd of philosophers, artists, warriors, politicians, and individuals from the ordinary walks of life. From this place you look down on the bustle of the gayest city in the world. A chapel in the buryingground affords the finest view of Paris.

CENCI, Beatrice, called the beautiful parricide, was the cause of the extermination of the noble family of Cenci. Muratori, in his Annals (vol. 10, pt. 1, 136), relates the story as follows: Francesco Cenci, a noble and wealthy Roman, after his second marriage, conducted towards the children of his first marriage in the most shocking manner, procured the assassination of two of his sons, on their return from Spain, by banditti, and, what is still more horrid, seduced and debauched his youngest daughter, a maiden of singular beauty. Beatrice discovered this shocking crime to her relatives, and even sought to obtain protection from pope Clement. It appears, however, that this was not granted; for, when the guilty father continued his former treatment, with aggravated wickedness, she joined with her brother Giacomo, and procured the death of the monster, by two assassins, as he slept. The guilty parties were discovered, confessed the murder on the rack, and were condemned by the pope to be torn to pieces by horses. In vain did the learned Farinaceus (celebrated for his Quastiones) exert himself to obtain a mitigation of their punishment by a lively representation of the depravity of the deceased. According to other accounts, Beatrice and her relatives appear to have had little or no share in the murder of the old Cenci; but a tissue of villany and baseness gained belief to the false testimony of two banditti against the Cenci family. So much is certain, that, Sept. 11, 1599, Beatrice Cenci and her sister were executed with a sort of guillotine, called mannaia. Giacomo was killed with a club; the younger broth