which the pope, as a secular sovereign, concludes with other princes respecting political concerns, are not called concordates. One of the most important of the earlier concordates is that of Worms, called, also, the Calixtine Concordate, made in 1122, between pope Calixtus II and the emperor Henry V, in order to put an end to the long contest on the subject of investiture, and which has since been considered a fundamental ordinance in respect to the relations between the Catholic church and the government in Germany. Most of the concordates have been extorted from the popes by the different nations or governments. This was done as early as the 15th century; for, when the council of Constance urged a reformation of the papal court, Martin V saw himself obliged, in 1418, to conclude concordates with the Germans, and soon afterwards, also, with other nations. The popes, however, succeeded, even in the 15th and 16th centuries, in concluding concordates for their advantage. This was the case with the concordates of Aschaffenburg. That, also, which was made by Leo X and Francis I of France (1516), was chiefly to the advantage of the pope. In later times, in particular, towards the end of the 18th century, the papal court could not any longer maintain a struggle with the spirit of the times and with the secular powers, and was obliged to resign many privileges by concordates. Bonaparte, when first consul of the French republic, concluded a concordate with pope Pius VII, July 15, 1801, which went into operation in April, 1802. It reestablished the Catholic church in France, and has become the basis of the present ecclesiastical constitution of that country. The government obtained by it the right to appoint the clergy; the public treasury gained by the diminution of the large number of metropolitan and episcopal sees to 60; the pope was obliged to give up the plan of restoring the spiritual orders and the influence which he exercised by means of delegates, but retained the right of the canonical investiture of bishops and the revenues connected with this right. The interests of religion suffered by this compact, inasmuch as most of the dioceses became now too large to be properly administered; and the lower clergy, the very soul of the church, who were in a poor condition before, were made entirely dependent on the government. Louis XVIII concluded, at Rome, with Pius VII (July 11, 1817), a new concordate, by which that of 1516, so injurious to the liberties of the Gallican

church, was again revived; the concordate of 1801 and the articles organiques of 1802 were abolished; the nation subjected to an enormous tax by the demand of endowments for 42 new metropolitan and episcopal sees, with their chapters and seminaries; and free scope afforded to the intolerance of the Roman court by the indefinite language of article 10, which speaks of measures against the prevailing obstacles to religion and the laws of the church. This revival of old abuses, this provision for the luxury of numerous clerical dignitaries at the expense of the nation, could please only the ultra-royalist nobility, who saw in it means for providing their sons with benefices. The nation received the concordate with almost universal disapprobation; voices of the greatest weight were raised against it (Grégoire, Essai historique sur les Libertés de l'Église Gallicane, Paris, 1818; Lanjuinais, Appréciation du Projet de Loi rel. aux trois Concordats, 5th ed., Paris, 1818; De Pradt, Les quatre Concordats, Paris, 1818, 3 vols.); and the new ministers saw themselves obliged to withdraw their proposition. The pope was more fortunate in the concordate made with Naples (Feb. 16, 1818), at Terracina, in which stipulations were made for the exclusive establishment of Catholicism in this kingdom; for the independence of the theological seminaries on the secular power; the free disposal of benefices to the value of 12,000 ducats, in Naples, in favor of Roman subjects; the reversion of the revenues of vacant places to the church; unlimited liberty of appeal to the papal chair; the abolition of the royal permission, formerly necessary for the pastoral letters of the bishops; the right of censorship over books; besides many other highly important privileges. The king obtained the right to appoint bishops, to tax the clergy, to reduce the number of the episcopal sees and monasteries, which existed before Murat's reign. The quiet possession of the estates of the church, which had been alienated, was also secured to the proprietors. In the concordate concluded with Bavaria, July 5, 1817, two archbishoprics were established for the 2,400,000 Catholics in Bavaria. These were Münich (with the bishoprics of Augsburg, Passau and Ratisbon) and Bamburg (with the bishoprics of Würzburg, Eichstädt and Spire). Seminaries, moreover, were instituted and provided with lands; the nominations were left to the king, with the reservation of the papal right of confirmation; the limits of the civil and ecclesiastical jurisdiction

were precisely settled, and the erection of new monasteries was promised. This concordate was published in May, 1818, together with the new political constitution, by which all apprehensions for the Protestant church in Bavaria were allayed. (Respecting the concordate between Prussia and the pope, see German Church and Prussia.) The other German princes have formed a plan for a common concordate with the pope. On the whole, the contest which has been carried on for more than 800 years between the secular power and the church is as little settled as it was in the times of Gregory VII and the emperor Henry IV, and the concordates are to be considered only as temporary agreements, which are followed as long as either party is obliged or thinks it best to observe them. In fact, it is vain to think of putting an end to the dispute, while secular governments maintain that it rests with them to appoint the officers and instructers of the people, and the pope maintains that the authority of the church is prior in time and superior in degree to any other. The light in which the Roman court views the cessions made in concordates appears from a letter of pope Innocent I, in 1416: Ergo quod pro remedio necessitas reperit, cessante necessitate debet utique cessare, quia alius est ordo legitimus, alia usurpatio, quam ad præsens tantum fieri tempus impellit. The governments, on the contrary, add reservations to the concordates, as in the case of the articles which the French government prefixed to the concordate of 1801, before it was promulgated. Against the appeal to a divine institution, on which the pope founds his authority, the sovereigns maintain the following claims:-1. The sovereign of the state is, at the same time, the secular head of the church, and all the power of the church to make regulations and appoint clerical functionaries has been given by him, and remains under his superintendency; 2. the temporal possessions of the church are properly subject to the state, which has a right to prevent them from becoming excessive; 3. the secular government can prohibit such acts of worship as are opposed to the interest and peace of the state, and interfere with the rights of other religious societies; 4. the state has the right of protecting new sects; 5. the civil rights of subjects (even with regard to the validity and consequences of marriage) are to be exclusively regulated by the laws of the state. It is easily understood that no such contest between church and state can take place

where the church does not claim any political authority, and the sovereign does not consider religion as an instrument for state purposes. Of course there is no such contest in the U. States of America.

CONCORDIA; or concord, personified and worshipped as a goddess in Rome, where she had several temples, the most important of which was that in the capitol, erected by Camillus. An annual feast was celebrated, in her honor, the 16th of January. She was represented with wreaths of flowers on her head, and in one hand two cornucopiæ, in the other, a bundle of rods or a pomegranate. Symbolically, Concordia was represented by two hands clasped together, or by the caduceus. (See Grecian Mythology.)

CONCRETE; a technical word in logic. If we conceive of certain qualities as existing in an object, we then regard them, according to philosophical language, in concreto; but if we think of them separately from the object, we then regard them in abstracto; for example, a just man is a concrete conception, but justice is an abstract idea. (See Philosophy.)

CONCRETIONS, MORBID, in animal economy; hard substances that occasionally make their appearance in different parts of the body, as well in the solids as in those cavities destined to contain fluids: in the former case, they are denominated concretions or ossifications; in the latter, calculi. The concretions that make their appearance in the solids of the animal body are denominated pineal concretions, from their being found in that part of the brain called the pineal gland; or salivary concretions, as being discovered, occasionally, in the salivary glands; or pancreatic concretions, which are hard substances found in the pancreas; or pulmonary concretions, which have been sometimes coughed up by consumptive persons; or hepatic concretions, of which the liver is sometimes full. Concretions have also been found in the prostate. These have all been examined by chemists, and found to consist of phosphate of lime and other substances. Concretions have been discovered in the intestines and stomach of man, but more frequently in the bodies of other animals. Those found in the intestines of a horse were examined by Fourcroy, and found to consist of magnesia, phosphoric acid, ammonia, water and animal matter. (See Calculi.)

CONCUBINAGE; the cohabitation of a man with a concubine. Among the Greeks, concubinage was allowed even to married men: the number of their con

cubines, also, was unlimited. Among the Romans, concubinage was neither unlawful nor disgraceful. It was, moreover, formally permitted to unmarried men, by the Ler Julia, and by the Lex Papia Poppea, but with the provision, that it should be limited to a single concubine, and that only women of mean descent, as freed-women, actresses and the like, should be chosen for the purpose. The children begotten in concubinage were not considered as legitimate, but were called natural, and the right of inheritance of the concubine and her children was very much limited. With the introduction of Christianity, concubinage ceased; and, indeed, Constantine the Great made laws against it. The Code Napoléon did not expressly forbid concubinage, but the lawful wife could sue for a divorce (since the restoration of the Bourbons, only for separation), in case of the introduction of a concubine by her husband into their common residence. The Prussian code does not allow concubinage, as some authors have asserted, but it establishes two kinds of marriages, one of which does not confer the rank, &c., of the husband on the wife, nor give the children the same rights as those enjoyed by the children born in the other kind of marriage. This form of marriage seems to have been allowed by the code chiefly for the benefit of poor officers of government, whose rank far exceeds their salary; but, though it stands in the code, it never has received from the king the authority of law. The ruling family, however, sometimes contracts such marriages. The present king is married to the princess of Lignitz in this form. There is no want of legality in the connexion; it is merely to prevent the wife from becoming a queen, and her children royal princes.

CONDAMINE, Charles Marie la, a naturalist, born at Paris in 1701, died at the same place in 1774. With an ardent spirit and a powerful frame, the young Condamine, who had entered the military profession, gave himself up to pleasure; but he soon renounced the military career, and devoted himself to the sciences. He entered the academy as adjoint chimiste. His desire of knowledge induced him to apply himself to several sciences, without advancing very deeply in any particular one. After he had visited the coasts of Asia and Africa on the Mediterranean, he was, in 1736, chosen, with Godin and Bouguer, to determine the figure of the earth, by a measurement to be made in Peru. (See Earth.) He there made the

discovery, that mountains attract heavy bodies, and give them a direction different from that which they would take according to the simple law of gravity—a truth which was afterward confirmed by Maskelyne and Cavendish. Having finished his labors in America, and escaped a thousand dangers, he returned to his native land, after an absence of eight years, and soon after went to Rome, where Benedict XIV gave him a dispensation to marry one of his nieces. Of his curiosity the following anecdote is related. At the execution of Damiens, he mingled with the executioners, in order to let no circumstance of this horrible manner of death pass unobserved. They were about to send him back, but the chief executioner, who knew Condamine, prevented them with these words: "Laissez, messieurs, c'est un amateur." His principal works are his account of his travels, his work on the figure of the earth, and that on the measurement of three degrees of the meridian in the equatorial regions. Besides these, he published treatises on inoculation for the small-pox.

CONDÉ; a fortress of France, in the department du Nord, nine leagues and a half S. E. of Lisle. Inhabitants, 6,080. It is, according to the French military terminology, a place de guerre de première classe. During the revolution, it was called Nord-Libre. Its port is much frequented.

CONDE, Louis de Bourbon, prince of (the great Condé); born in 1621; a general of distinguished talents, great advantages of person, and very attractive manners. During the life of his father, he bore the title of duke d'Enghien. He immortalized this name at the battle of Rocroi, in which, at the age of 22, he defeated the Spaniards (1643). After he had arranged every thing for the battle, on the evening previous, he fell into so sound a sleep, that it was necessary to awake him when the time for engaging came on. Wherever he appeared, he was victorious. He was so fortunate as to repair the consequences of a defeat of marshal Turenne. He besieged Dunkirk in sight of the Spanish army, and gained this place for France, in 1646. He was equally fortunate in putting a stop to the civil war which Mazarin had occasioned, who was afterwards obliged to seek the support of Condé. Jealous of the glory of the prince, and fearing his pride, Mazarin, in 1650, caused his deliverer to be brought captive to Vincennes, and did not restore him his freedom until after the expiration of a year. The offended Condé now entered into

negotiations with Spain, and fought against his native country with such success, that he advanced almost to the gates of Paris. He obtained possession of the neighboring places, while Turenne was approaching the capital in order to cover it. Both generals fought with great valor, very near the suburb St. Antoine, and added to their former reputation (July 2, 1652). A short time after, peace was concluded, in which, however, Condé did not concur, but went to the Netherlands. The peace of the Pyrenees, in 1659, at last restored this great general to France. After Turenne's death, in 1675, he commanded, for a long time, the French army in Germany. The gout at last compelled him to retire to his beautiful estate at Chantilly, near Paris, where he devoted himself to the sciences. Here he was visited by Corneille, Bossuet, Racine, Boileau, Bourdaloue, who enjoyed his conversation as much as he did theirs. He died in 1687 at Fontainebleau. In the church of St. Louis, at Paris, a monument was erected to him.

CONDE, Louis Joseph de Bourbon, prince of; born at Chantilly, in 1736; only son of the duke of Bourbon and the princess of Hesse-Rheinfels. By the death of both his parents, he came, in his 5th year, under the guardianship of count Charolais, his uncle. The prince was educated with great strictness, and made some progress in the sciences. In 1753, he married the princess of Rohan-Soubise, who, in 1756, bore him the prince Bourbon-Condé. In the seven years' war, he distinguished himself by his courage and skill, and, in 1762, gained a victory, at Johannisberg, over the hereditary prince of Brunswick. True to the old constitution, he opposed Louis XV, on account of the introduction of a newly formed parliament, and was, on this account, banished, but soon recalled. His leisure he devoted to study, in friendly intimacy with the most learned men of his time, and to the embellishment of Chantilly, where Paul I visited him. He was wounded in a duel with count Agoult. In the revolution, he emigrated, in 1789, to Brussels, and from there to Turin: he afterwards formed, in 1792, at Worms, a little corps of emigrant nobility, 6806 men strong, which joined the Austrian army under Wurmser. After an interview with Gustavus III, of Sweden, at Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1791, on the subject of measures to be undertaken, he was summoned at Worms, by a deputy of the national assembly, and by the king himself, to return to France within 14 days, under penalty of the loss of his estates. With the other

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princes, he returned an answer of refusal, from Coblentz. On the breaking out of the war, his corps distinguished itself; but the Austrian plan of operations did not agree with the views of the emigrants; therefore the connexion of prince Condé with Pichegru had no results. In 1795, he entered with his corps into the English service. In 1796, he fought in Suabia. In 1797, he entered the Russian service, and marched with his corps to Russia, where he was most hospitably received into the residence of Paul I; and returned, in 1799, to the Rhine, under Suwaroff. In 1800, after the separation of Russia from the coalition, he reentered the English service. campaign of 1800 ended the military career of the prince. He lived in England till 1813, in which year his second wife, the princess of Monaco, died. He returned to Paris, May 14, 1814, received the 10th regiment of the line, and the office of colonel-general of infantry, as also that of grand maître de France, and the protectorate of the order of St. Louis. He attended the celebrated royal council, March 17, 1815, fled with the king to Ghent, and returned with him to Paris in July, where, being appointed president of a bureau of the chamber of peers, he remained some time, but at last retired to Chantilly, where he had formerly written the interesting Essai sur la Vie du Grand Condé, par L. J. de Bourbon, son 4me Descendant, of which two editions have appeared since 1806. He died at Paris in 1818. His grandson was the duke d'Enghien. (q. v.)

CONDE, Louis Henry Joseph, duke of Bourbon, son of the preceding, born April 13, 1756, was educated to the profession of arms. He had hardly passed the age of childhood, when he was inspired with the most violent passion for Louisa Maria Theresa of Orleans. It was resolved that he should travel two years, and then receive the hand of the lady. But the impatience of the prince would not admit of this delay. He carried off his mistress from the convent where she resided, married her, and, in 1772, she bore him the prince d'Enghien. Condé's impetuosity occasioned a duel between him and the count d'Artois, in 1778. This was followed by his banishment to Chantilly. He likewise quarrelled with his wife, and, in 1780, separated himself from her (she died in 1822). In 1782, he was present, with the count d'Artois, at the siege of Gibraltar, distinguished himself there, and was appointed marshal. The pride of his name, the ardor of his character, and his confi

dence in the power of the king, caused him, in the beginning of the revolution, to treat with contempt a people in a state of violent fermentation. He continually advised the use of force. In 1789, he emigrated, with his father, to Turin, joined the corps of French emigrants, and, in 1792, 1793 and 1794, showed the ancient courage of the Condés. In 1795, he embarked at Bremen for Quiberon, in order to make a diversion in La Vendée, but was obliged to return to England without success. In 1797, he went with the corps to Russia, and, in 1799, returned to the Rhine. After the dissolution of the royal French army, he went to England, in 1800, where he lived till May, 1814. May 15, 1814, he was appointed, at Paris, colonel-general of the light-infantry, and, on Napoleon's return from Elba, in 1815, received the chief command in the departments of the west. But he was obliged, by a convention, to embark from Nantes. He sailed to Spain, whence he returned, in August, through Bordeaux and Nantes, to Paris.

CONDENSATION. Besides the mechanical powers (see Condenser), there are also chemical means for converting gaseous fluids into liquids by condensation; for example, steam into water, by means of cold. Volta gives the name of condenser of electricity to an instrument invented by him for collecting and measuring electricity in cases in which it is feebly developed; and an apparatus for the collection of sensible caloric is called a condenser of caloric.

CONDENSER; a pneumatic engine, or syringe, whereby an uncommon quantity of air may be crowded into a given space; so that sometimes 10 atmospheres, or 10 times as much air as there is at the same time in the same space without the engine, may be thrown in by means of it, and its egress prevented by valves properly disposed. (See Pneumatics.)

CONDILLAC, Stephen Bonnot de, among the French the founder of the sensual system, born in 1715, at Grenoble, lived, like his brother, the abbe Mably, from his youth, devoted to study. His Essai sur Origine des Connaissances humaines (1746, 2 vols.) first drew the attention of the world to a thinker, who, with much acuteness of mind, sought to explain, by the law of the association of ideas, almost all the phenomena of the human mind. Although Locke's discoveries in the department of psychology, founded upon experience, might have had an influence on this work, yet no one can deny to Condillac the merit of having made more pro

found inquiries on many points. He himself, however, thought that he had not sufficiently explained the first principles of the faculties of the human mind, and therefore wrote the Traité des Systêmes (1749, 2 vols.), in which he frequently referred to more accurate observations. Any one would misunderstand Condillac, who should believe that he disapproved of all systems; but instead of those maxims and theories which Des Cartes, Spinoza, Malebranche, &c., had laid down as the basis of their speculations, he demanded observations of the simplest kind. His Traité des Sensations (1754, 2 vols.) is interesting for the ingenious manner, in which he has explained the consciousness of impressions on the senses. Mortified by the supposition that he had followed the course of ideas in Diderot's and Buffon's works, he wrote his Traité des Animaux (1775), in which he refuted Buffon's opinions, by principles which he had advanced in his Traité des Sensations. The sagacity and the clearness which distinguish all Condillac's writings obtained for him the distinction of being chosen instructer of the infant duke of Parma, nephew of Louis XV. The intimate friendship which subsisted between him and his colleague, M. de Keralio, made this situation the more agreeable. To this cause we are indebted for his acute work, the Cours d'Études (1755, 13 vols.), in which, with his peculiar talent of explanation, he investigates the external signs of ideas. Thus his Grammar necessarily became a universal one; his Art of Writing, a course of instruction for giving the most suitable expression to trains of thought. With the same view, he composed his L'Art de juger, and L'Art de penser, which constitute a part of the Cours d'Étu des. His history has been less successful than his other works. Considered apart from the tameness of its execution, it might be objected to it, that it represents occurrences in subservience to preestablished theories. Condillac returned, after the completion of the education of the young prince, to Paris, where, in 1768, he was admitted into the French academy, which, however, he did not visit again after the day of his entrance. work, Le Commerce et le Gouvernement considérés relativement l'un à l'autre (1776), which is an application of his analytical method to several problems in the administration of the state, met, however, with little approbation. His Logic, the last of his works, he wrote by request, in 1780, as a manual for the Polish schools. The

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