tracing back of the thoughts to their simplest beginnings, as the most certain means of finding the truth, is urgently enjoined by him. Condillac died at his estate of Flux, near Bougenci, Aug. 3, 1780. His Langue des Calculs first appeared in 1798. The collection of his works, the revision of which he had begun, appeared at Paris in 1798, in 23 vols., and again in the same year, in 35 vols. A later edition, of 1803, consists of 32 vols., 12mo. (See French Philosophy.)

CONDITION. (See Bond.)

CONDOR. The popular name of the great vulture of the Andes, formed by a mispronunciation of the Indian name kunter, which, according to Humboldt, is derived from another word in the language of the Incas, signifying to smell well. This species (vultur gryphus L., hodie cathartes gryphus) belongs to the vulturine family of diurnal rapacious birds, and the genus cathartes of Illiger, &c., which is distinguished by the following characters-the bill is elongated and straight at base; the upper mandible is covered to the middle by the cere; the nostrils are medial, approximate, oval, pervious and naked; the tongue is canaliculate, with serrated edges; the head is elongated, depressed and rugous; the tarsus rather slender; the lateral toes equal; the middle toe is much the longest, the inner free, and the hind one shortest; the first primary is rather short, the third and fourth are longest. The natural history of the condor was in a fair way to rival the ancient fables of griffins, basilisks and dragons, or even of exceeding the roc of Sinbad the Sailor, in extravagant exaggeration, until that admirable and judicious observer, Von Humboldt, placed it upon the basis of truth. By divesting this bird of all fictitious attributes, and bringing it into its proper family, he certainly spoiled a great number of romantic narratives of their principal embellishment; but he amply compensated therefor, by giving this additional proof, that there are no monsters in nature, and that even when she appears to depart most from the ordinary standard, as to size, situation or habits, her beings are parts of a single plan, in which all the agents are modifications of one great type. We therefore feel grateful to the indefatigable unturalist, whose residence of 17 months in the native mountains of the condor enabled him daily to observe its peculiarities and habits, and to furnish us with satisfying statements of realities, in place of the wild and inconclusive figments, so long imposed

upon mankind. His careful measurements establish the fact, that the wonderfully gigantic condor is not generally larger than the lammergeyer, or bearded vulture of the Alps, which it closely resembles in various points of character. We shall soon see whether the rational student has lost by stripping the condor of qualities bestowed upon it solely by credulous ignorance, and whether the truth to be told of its history be not more interesting than all the fictions. Upon a chain of mountains, whose summits, lifted far above the highest clouds, are robed in snows coeval with creation, we find a race of birds, whose magnitude and might, compared with others of the feathered kind, is in something like the proportion of their huge domicils to earth's ordinary elevations. Above all animal life, and at the extreme limit of even Alpine vegetation, these birds prefer to dwell, inhaling an air too highly rarified to be endured, unless by creatures expressly adapted thereto. From such immense elevations they soar, still more sublimely, upwards into the darkblue heavens, until their great bulk diminishes to a scarcely perceptible speck, or is lost to the aching sight of the observer. In these pure fields of ether, unvisited even by the thunder-cloud-regions which may be regarded as his own exclusive domainthe condor delights to sail, and with piercing glance surveys the surface of the earth, towards which he never stoops his wing, unless at the call of hunger. Surely this power to waft and sustain himself in the loftiest regions of the air; his ability to endure, uninjured, the exceeding cold attendant on such remoteness from the earth; and to breathe, with ease, in an atmosphere of such extreme rarity; together with the keenness of sight, that, from such vast heights, can minutely scan the objects below,-are sufficiently admirable to entitle the condor to our attention, though we no longer regard it as a prodigy, or as standing altogether solitary in the scale of creation.-Notwithstanding that the condor is a lover of the clearest and purest air, it must be confessed that he is a carrion bird, and is quickly lured to the plains by the sight or scent of a carcass, especially of a sheep or ox. To such a feast considerable numbers repair, and commence their filthy banquet by first plucking out the eyes, and then tearing away the tongue of the animal, their favorite delicacies; next to these, the bowels are the morsels most cagerly sought for, and devoured with that greedy gluttony which distinguishes the whole vulture tribe. The appetite of these

birds seems to be limited only by the quantity of food that can be gorged into their stomachs; and when thus overloaded, they appear sluggish, oppressed, and unable to raise themselves into the air. The Indians profit by this condition to revenge themselves on the condors for the many robberies which they commit upon their flocks, and, watching while they eat, until flight has become exceedingly difficult, attack and secure them by nooses, or knock them down with poles, before they can get out of the way. If the condor, thus loaded, succeeds in rising a short distance from the ground, he makes a violent effort, kicking his feet towards his throat, and relieves himself by vomiting, when he soon ascends out of reach. Many, however, are surprised, and captured or killed before they are able to ascend. But the condor does not exclusively feed upon dead or putrefying flesh; he attacks and destroys deer, vicunas, and other middling-sized or small quadrupeds; and, when pinched by hunger, a pair of these birds will attack a bullock, and, by repeated wounds with their beaks and claws, harass him, until, from fatigue, he thrusts out his tongue, which they immediately seize, and tear from his head; they also pluck out the eyes of the poor beast, which, if not speedily rescued, must soon fall a prey to their voracity. It is said to be very common to see the cattle of the Indians, on the Andes, suffering from the severe wounds inflicted by these rapacious birds. It does not appear that they have ever attacked the human race. When Humboldt, accompanied by his friend Bonpland, was collecting plants near the limits of perpetual snow, they were daily in company with several condors, which would suffer themselves to be quite closely approached without exhibiting signs of alarm, though they never showed any disposition to act offensively. They were not accused, by the Indians, of ever carrying off children, though frequent opportunities were presented, had they been so disposed. Humboldt believes that no authenticated case can be produced, in which the lammergeyer of the Alps ever carried off a child, though so currently accused of such theft, but that the possibility of the evil has led to the belief of its actual existence. The condor is not known to build a nest, but is said to deposit its eggs on the naked rocks. The eggs are reported to be altogether white, and 3 or 4 inches long. When hatched, the female is said to remain with the young for a whole year, in order to provide them with

food, and to teach them to supply themselves. In relation to all these points, satisfactory information still remains to be desired. We have seen that hunger impels the condors to descend to the plains, and it is also true, that they are occasionally seen even on the shores of the Southern ocean, in the cold and temperate regions of Chile, where the Andes so closely approach the shores of the Pacific. Their sojourn, however, in such situations, is but for a short time, as they seem to require a much cooler and more highly rarified air, and prefer those lofty solitudes where the barometer does not rise higher than 16 degrees. When they descend to the plains, they alight on the ground, rather than upon trees or other projections, as the straightness of their toes renders the first mentioned situation most eligible. Humboldt saw the condor only in New Grenada, Quito and Peru, but was informed that it follows the chain of the Andes from the equator to the 7th degree of north latitude, into the province of Antioquia. There is now no doubt of its appearing even in Mexico, and the south-western territory of the U. States.-The head of the male condor is furnished with a sort of cartilaginous crest, of an oblong figure, wrinkled, and quite slender, resting upon the forehead and hinder part of the beak, for about a fourth of its length; at the base of the bill it is free. The female is destitute of this crest. The skin of the head, in the male, forms folds behind the eye, which descend towards the neck, and terminate in a flabby, dilatable or erectile membrane. The structure of the crest is altogether peculiar, bearing very little resemblance to the cock's comb, or the wat"tles of a turkey. The auricular orifice is of considerable size, but concealed by folds of the temporal membrane. The eye, which is peculiarly elongated, and farther distant from the beak than in the eagles, is of a purple hue, and very brilliant. The neck is uniformly marked by parallel longitudinal wrinkles, though the membrane is not so flabby as that covering the throat, which appear to be caused by the frequent habit of drawing the neck downwards, to conceal or warm it within the collar or hood. The collar, in both sexes, is a fine silken down, forming a white band between the naked part of the neck and beginning of the true feathers, and is rather more than 2 inches broad, not entirely surrounding the neck, but leaving a very narrow naked space in front. The rest of the surface, the back, wings and tail, are of a slightly grayish-black, though

sometimes they are brilliantly black; the feathers are triangular, and placed over each other tile-wise. Humboldt never saw male condors with white backs, though descriptions of such have been given by Molina and others. The primaries are black; the secondaries, in both sexes, are exteriorly edged with white. The wing coverts, however, offer the best distinction of the sexes, being grayish-black in the female, while, in the male, their tips, and even half of the shafts, are white, so that his wings are ornamented with beautiful white spots. The tail is blackish, wedgeshaped, rather short, and contains 12 feathers. The feet are very robust, and of an ashen-blue color, marked with white wrinkles. The claws are blackish, very long, and but slightly hooked. The 4 toes are united by an obvious but delicate membrane; the fourth is the smallest, and has the most crooked claw. The following are the dimensions of the largest male condor described by Humboldt (it was killed on the eastern declivity of Chimborazo):-length, from tip of the beak to the tip of the tail, 3 feet 3 inches 2 lines (French); height, when perched, with the neck moderately extended, 2 feet 8 inches; entire length of head and beak, 6 inches 11 lines; beak alone, 2 inches 9 lines; breadth of beak, closed, 1 inch 2 lines; envergure, or from the tip of one extended wing to the other, 8 feet 9 inches; breadth of leg bone, 11 lines; length of longest toe, without the claw, 3 inches 11 lines; claw, 2 inches; length of two lateral toes, with their claws, 3 inches 7 lines; claw, 2 inches 3 lines; shortest toe and claw, 1 inch 8 lines. From this measurement, it is obvious that the condor does not exceed the average size of the largest European vulture; and Humboldt states that he never saw a condor whose envergure measured more than 9 French feet. He was also assured, by very credible inhabitants of the country, that they never saw one whose envergure was greater than 11 feet. He finally concludes that 14 feet is about the maximum size to which the largest condor would attain. Two or three specimens of the condor have been exhibited in Philadelphia and New York within the last 7 years, and were evidently not full grown birds; yet the envergure of the largest of them measured 11 English feet. The envergure of the specimen belonging to the Leverian museum, described by Dr. Shaw, measured 14 English feet. Notwithstanding, therefore, what is said by Humboldt, of the general correspondence in size of the Alpine lammergeyer and

the condor of the Andes, we cannot avoid believing that a full grown individual of the latter species would be much more than a match, in every respect, for any European species. The condor is peculiarly tenacious of life, and has been observed, after having been hung for a considerable time by the neck, in a noose, to rise and walk away quickly when taken down for dead, and to receive several pistol bullets in its body without appearing greatly injured. The great size and strength of its plumage defends its body, to a considerable degree, from the effects of shot. It is easily killed when shot, or struck sufficiently hard, about the head.

CONDORCANQUI, Joseph Gabriel; an American Spaniard, who, having been ill treated by a magistrate, and sustained an act of injustice from the audiencia of Lima, attempted to redress his own grievances, and the oppressions of the Indians, by inciting them to insurrection against the Spanish government in 1780. He was an artful and intrepid man; and, with a view to conciliate the Indians, he assumed the name of Tupac-Amaru, one of the ancient incas, professing a design to restore the ancient dynasty of Manco-Capac in Peru, a project which had been entertained by sir Walter Raleigh, in the reign of queen Elizabeth. The scheme was, at first, very successful. The spirit of revolt extended far and wide into the interior of the country; the contest lasted three years, and the pretended Tupac-Amaru was hailed inca of Peru. His conduct, however, proved obnoxious to the Spanish settlers, and the efforts of the Indians were too feeble and desultory to support so gigantic an undertaking. Troops were sent against him, and, being deserted by his followers, he was taken and put to death.

CONDORCET, Marie Jean Nicolas Carital, marquis de; born Sept. 17, 1743, at Ribemont, near St. Quentin, of one of the oldest families in Dauphiny. By the assistance of his uncle Jacques Marie de Condorcet, bishop of Lisieux, he was educated in the college of Navarre, at Paris. At a public examination, which was attended by D'Alembert, Clairaut and Fontaine, the manner in which he solved a mathematical proposition gained their applause, and the youth of 16 was so much excited by their praises, that, from that time, he resolved to devote himself entirely to the exact sciences. The duke of Rochefoucault was his patron, and introduced him into the world at the age of 19. But its allurements could not render him

unfaithful to the severe studies which he had chosen. At the age of 21, he presented to the academy of sciences an Essai sur le Calcul Intégral, which caused Fontaine to observe, that he was jealous of the young man. His Mémoire sur le Problème des Trois Points appeared in 1767. Both works were afterwards united under the title of Essais d'Analyse. The merit of this work gained for him, in 1769, the distinction of a seat in the academy of sciences. With astonishing facility and versatility, Condorcet treated the most difficult problems in mathematics; but his genius inclined him rather to lay down beautiful formulas than to pursue them to useful applications. Condorcet also wrote academical eulogies, as Fontenelle's talents in this department were very much missed. Although his Éloges des Académiciens Morts avant 1699 (Paris, 1773) leave much to be desired, yet they were received with so much applause, that the place of secretary of the academy, in 1777, was not refused to him even by his rivals. This office imposed on him the necessity of investigating the various departments of the sciences (the most distinguished promoters of which he was obliged to eulogize), in order to be able to exhibit the latest discoveries; but he did not allow himself to be drawn away from his mathematical studies. His theory of comets gained, in 1777, the prize offered by the academy of Berlin, and he enriched the transactions of the learned societies of Petersburg, Berlin, Bologna, Turin and Paris with profound contributions in the department of the higher mathematics. The aversion of the minister Maurepas to Condorcet delayed his entrance into the French academy till 1782. His inaugural discourse was on the advantages which society may derive from the union of the physical and moral sciences. Being intimately connected with Turgot, he was led into a thorough examination of the system of the economists, and his acquaintance with D'Alembert made him take an active part in the Encyclopédie, for which he wrote many articles. He was the friend of most of the contributors to this great work. In all his writings, he displays an exalted view of human nature-a circumstance much to his honor, considering the character of those with whom he was associated. This feeling deterinined him in favor of the cause of the American colonies during their contest with England. He was also a friend of the enslaved Negroes, and was anxious for their restoration to freedom (Reflexions sur l'Esclavage

His

des Negres). In 1787, Condorcet published Voltaire's Life, a sort of sequel to the complete edition of Voltaire's works, which he had given to the world with notes and illustrations, and therein expressed the admiration which the versatility of talent and the zeal in the cause of humanity of this great man had awakened in him. Meanwhile his opinions of the rights of citizens and of men, estranged him from the duke of Rochefoucault, his former benefactor. His enemies have asserted that the refusal of the post of instructer to the dauphin induced him to join the popular party. The real cause was his enthusiasm for the great and good. He wrote, in favor of the popular cause, Sur les Assemblées provinciales, subsequently in the Bibliothèque de l'Homme public and the Feuille villageoise. Under a cold exterior, he possessed the most ardent passions. D'Alembert compared him to a volcano covered with snow. Feuille villageoise, in which he simply stated the first principles of political economy, and of the relations of states, exerted considerable influence. On the intelligence of the flight of the king, he represented, in a speech which was highly admired, the royal dignity as an antisocial institution. The royal treasury, of which he was appointed, in 1791, commissary, received, at his suggestion, the name of national treasury. He was finally elected a deputy of Paris to the legislative assembly, and very soon, though his bodily strength seemed inadequate for the office, he was chosen secretary of the assembly. In February, 1792, he was appointed president; composed the proclamation addressed to the French and to Europe, which announced the abolition of the royal dignity; spoke in the national convention, where he had a seat as deputy of the department of Aisne, for the most part, indeed, with the Girondists; but, on the trial of Louis, he was in favor of the severest sentence not capital; at the same time, he proposed to abolish capital punishments, except in case of crimes against the state. This participation in the proceedings against the king was the reason why his name was struck off from the list of members of the academies of Petersburg and Berlin. The revolution of May 31, 1793, prevented the constitution which Condorcet had drawn up from being accepted. The constitution then adopted he attacked without moderation or reserve, and was, in consequence, denounced at the bar (q v.), July 8. He was accused, Oct. 3, of being an accom

plice of Brissot. To save his life, he concealed himself, and was declared out of the protection of the law. Madame Verney, a woman of noble feelings, secreted him for eight months. She procured him the means of subsistence, and even wrote little poems to enliven his spirits. While in this retreat, without the assistance of others, and surrounded by all the horrors of his situation, Condorcet wrote his excellent Esquisse d'un Tableau historique des Progrès de l'Esprit humain, full of enthusiasm for that liberty, the degeneracy of which caused him so much suffering. In answer to the encouraging words of his protectress, he wrote the Epitre d'un Polonais exilé en Sibérie à sa Femme, full of those noble sentiments which had been the rules of his life. He at last learned from the public papers, that death was denounced against all those who concealed a proscribed individual. In spite of the prayers of the generous woman who had given him refuge, he left her, and fled in disguise from Paris. He wandered about for a long time, until, driven by hunger, he entered a small inn at Clamar, where he was arrested, as a suspicious person, by a member of the revolutionary tribunal of Clamar, and thrown into prison, to undergo a more strict examination. On the following morning, March 28, 1794, he was found dead on the floor of his room, apparently having swallowed poison,which he always carried about him, and which nothing but his love for his wife and daughter had prevented him from using before. A collection of his numerous writings, complete with the exception of his mathematical works, appeared in Paris in 1804 (Euvres complètes, publiés par Garat et Cabanis, 21 vols.). An excellent historical notice of them is to be found in the Notice sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de Condorcet, par Antoine Diannyère, 1796. The Mémoires de Condorcet sur la Révolution Française is a poor work.

CONDOTTIERI (leaders); the captains of those bands of soldiers which were frequent in Italy towards the end of the middle ages, who sought for service in every war, and fought not for their country, but for pay and plunder, and offered their assistance to every party which could pay them. These bands originated in the endless wars and feuds of the Italian states and governments at that time, and the whole military power soon came into their hands. They consisted principally of men too ignorant or too indolent to obtain an honest livelihood, or who wished to escape the punishment of some crime.

They included, however, many people who had been deprived of their fortunes by these wars. As these men had not the slightest interest in those who hired them, but that of being paid, and of finding opportunities for plunder, wars terminated with very little bloodshed, sometimes with none; for when the bands of condottieri met, the smallest in number not unfrequently surrendered to the other. The most ambitious among them, however, had higher views. Such was Francesco Sforza, who, being chosen by the Milanese to command their army, made himself, in 1451, their duke and lord, and whose posterity continued to possess sovereign power. There is little difference between most of the condottieri and some of the nobler kinds of robbers. (See Captain.)

CONDUCTOR OF LIGHTNING is an instrument, by means of which either the electricity of the clouds-the cause of lightning

is conducted, without explosion, into the earth, or the lightning itself is intercepted and conducted, in a particular way, into the earth or water, without injuring buildings, ships, &c. This invention belongs to doctor Franklin. While making experiments on electricity, he observed that a pointed metallic wire, if brought near an electrified body, gradually deprives the latter of its electricity in such a manner that no sparks appear. Therefore, as clouds are electrified, he thought that they might be deprived of their electricity (which is the cause of lightning and of its striking), if a pointed metallic rod were fastened upon the highest part of a building, and a wire carried down from this into the earth, so that the electricity of the cloud, attracted by the point, might be conducted into the ground. Franklin's conjecture proved to be well founded, and conductors were soon after introduced into many countries. They at first consisted of an iron rod, running down the sides of a building into the earth, while its point rose several feet above the building. Experience, thus far, shows the best construction of conductors to be this :-The conductor consists of a rod of iron, an inch thick, to the upper end of which is attached a tapering piece of copper, 8 or 9 inches in length, gilded, to prevent its rusting. This rod is fixed to the highest part of a building, in such a way as to rise at least 5 or 6 feet above it: to this are fastened strips of copper, 3 or 4 inches broad, and riveted together, which must reach to the earth, and be carried into it about a foot deep. The strips are to be