be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. And the powers not delegated to the U. States by the constitution, nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the states respectively, or to the people. (For other provisions of the constitution, see the titles Constitution of the United States, Courts of the United States, President of the United States, &c. &c.*)

CONGRESS SPRING; a medicinal spring at Saratoga, in the state of New-York. Its water is purgative; its specific gravity, compared with pure water, is as 1012 to 1000; the taste very saline, brisk and pungent. Several chemists have given analyses of the water of this fountain; but in their results exist some discrepancies. (See Manual of Materia Medica, by Edwards and Vavasseur, Paris; translated 1829, Philad.) Doctor Steel classes the Saratoga spring among the acidulous saline chalybeate. According to him, one gallon, just taken from the spring, contains the following ingredi

ents, viz.:

Muriate of soda,
Hydriodate of soda,
Carbonate of soda,.
Carbonate of lime,.

Carbonate of magnesia,

Oxide of iron,

0.6 316 cubic inches.

Silica and alumine (probably),
Carbonic acid
gas,
Atmospheric air,.

4

66

66

Doctor Steel observes, that iodine may exist in a mineral water, in the state of iodic or hydriodic acid, combined with either of the alkalies, potassa or soda, forming the iodate or hydriodate of the alkali with which they are united. The following table contains the ingredients of the water of Congress spring, the public well at Ballston, and the Albany water, given by Mr. Meade:

Congress Spring.

Muriate of soda,. Carbonate of lime,

Magnesia,

Muriate of lime,. Muriate of magnesia, Oxide of iron,

..

781

CONGREVE, William; a celebrated English dramatist, descended from an ancient English family, in the county of Stafford; born in 1670. His father held a command in the army. Young Congreve was educated in Ireland, at the free school of Kilkenny, to the neighborhood of which his father had been led in the course of service. From Kilkenny he removed to Trinity college, Dublin, and thence to the Middle Temple, London, to prepare himself for the legal profession. Like many men who are placed in a similar situation, he soon deserted the law, and abandoned himself to the pursuits of polite literature. At a very early age, he wrote a novel, entitled the Incognita, which is sprightly, intricate, and not natural. This was followed, at the age of 21, by his comedy of the Old Bachelor, pronounced by Dryden the greatest first play that he had ever beheld. Its success acquired for the author the patronage of lord Halifax, who immediately made him a commissioner for licensing hackney-coaches; soon after gave him a place in the pipe office; and finally conferred on him a very lucrative place in the customs. His next play, the Double Dealer, was not very successful in representation; but his third, the comedy of Love for Love, proved extremely popular. Not content with his fame in comedy, he now essayed tragedy; and, in 1697, produced his Mourning Bride, the reception of which was extremely favorable. The composition of four such plays,

travelling expenses. The stationary, fuel, printing, &c., for the senate, are estimated at $35,000, and for the house of representatives, $100,000. It is worth while to compare these expenses with those of the chambers of France and the two houses in England.

before he had attained the age of 28, is a remarkable proof of early genius in a line of composition demanding great observation and experience. He soon after closed his dramatic career, with the Way of the World, considered, by many critics, as the most perfect of his comedies; but which was, notwithstanding, received so coldly, that he resentfully determined to relinquish a species of writing in which, upon the whole, he had been eminently successful. A masque, entitled the Judgment of Paris, and Semele, an opera, the latter of which was never represented, close the list of his labors for the stage. He, however, continued to write occasional verses on public subjects; and, in 1710, published a collection of his plays and poems, which he dedicated to his early patron, lord Halifax, to whose person and party he remained attached in all fortunes. The remainder of the life of Congreve was spent in polished intercourse and literary leisure; and amidst the fierce party contention which divided almost all the other wits of the day, he pursued a dignified neutrality, and was praised and complimented on both sides. Steele dedicated to him his Miscellanies, and Pope his translation of the Iliad. On the return of his friends to power, he received the additional sinecure of secretary to the island of Jamaica; and, thus rendered affluent, seemed desirous of dropping the character of a man of letters altogether. When Voltaire, in a visit, alluded to his writings, he affected to regard them as trifles beneath him, and hinted that he only expected to be visited as a gentleman. Voltaire replied, that, had he been merely a gentleman, he should never have been desirous of seeing him. His latter years were clouded with sickness and infirmity, and he died in January, 1728-9, in his 60th year, in London. Congreve stands high on the list of English writers of comedy, for which distinction he is indebted less to a lively and humorous delineation of natural character, than to a perpetual reciprocation of wit in his dialogue, united to originality of plot, and to new combinations of factitious manners. He drew little from common life; and if his portraits of sharpers and coquettes-men without principle, and women without delicacy-are just portraitures of the fine gentlemen and ladies of the day, the reign of Charles II must have operated most dreadfully on the national character. His Love for Love still occasionally appears; but none of the other pieces can be sufficiently pruned of their licentiousness for modern represen

tation. The Mourning Bride is well constructed; but the florid elevation of the language is in the highest degree unnatural. It has, however, some fine poetic passages. The poetry of Congreve is below mediocrity, with the exception of a few songs and short effusions of gaiety or satire. CONGREVE, Sir William, bart.; inventor of the rockets called by his name; born in the county of Middlesex, England, in 1772; cooperated actively in the improvements introduced into the British army by the duke of York; was a member of parliament, general of artillery, inspector of the royal laboratory, &c. În 1816-17, he accompanied the grand prince Nicholas, now emperor of Russia, on his tour through England. In 1824, a company was formed for lighting the principal cities of Europe with gas, of which Congreve was at the head. He wrote an Elementary Treatise on the Mounting of Naval Ordnance (London, 1812), and a Description of the Hydro-Pneumatic Lock (London, 1815). He died at Toulouse, in France, May 16, 1828. The Congreve rockets, first used in the attack of Boulogne, 1806, are of various dimensions, and are differently armed as they are intended for the field or for bombardment. Those of the first sort carry shells or case-shot; the others are armed with a very combustible material, and are called carcass rockets. Their form is cylindrical, and they are composed of strong metallic cases. The sticks employed for regulating their flight are of different lengths, according to the size of the rocket. The carcass rockets are armed with strong, iron, conical heads, pierced with holes, and containing a substance as hard and solid as iron itself, which, when once inflamed, is inextinguishable, and scatters its burning particles in every direction. When this substance is consumed, the ball explodes like a grenade. The rocket is projected horizontally, and whizzes loudly as it flies through the air. The ammunition is divided into three classes-heavy, medium and light; the heavy including all above 42 pounds, the medium, those from 42 to 24 pounds, and the light from 18 to 6 pounds inclusive. The English have used them in the field at Leipsic, at the passage of the Adour, &c., and for bombardment at the siege of Copenhagen, &c. They were at first considered a very important invention, but experience has shown that they are made to deviate from their direction by the wind and other causes, and that they sometimes recoil upon their employers. In the field, they are much less effi

cient than the common artillery, and, in sieges, do less injury than red-hot shot and bombs. Their composition is not so entirely a secret as is commonly supposed, since they have been imitated by the Austrian, Saxon and other artillerists, and have even received some improvements from the first named.

CONIC SECTIONS. (See Cone.) CONJUGATION. (See Verb, Grammar, Language.)

CONJUNCTION, in astronomy.

pect.)

(See As

CONNANICUT, or CANONICUT; an island belonging to the state of Rhode Island, in Narraganset bay, on the west side of the island of Rhode island; eight miles long, about one in average breadth. It is a beautiful island, of a fertile soil, producing good crops of grass and grain. It contains the town of Jamestown. On the south end, at a place called Beaver Tail, there is a light-house.

CONNAUGHT; one of the four provinces of Ireland; bounded N. by the Atlantic ocean; E. by the counties of Fermanagh, Cavan, Longford, Westmeath and King's county; S. by the county of Clare and the sea; and W. by the sea. It contains 5 counties, viz., Galway, Leitrim, Mayo, Roscommon and Sligo, which include 296 parishes, 4108 square miles, 95,821 houses, 1 archbishopric and 5 bishoprics.

CONNECTICUT; one of the U. States; bounded N. by Massachusetts, E. by Rhode Island, S. by Long Island sound, and W. by New York; lon. 71° 20′ to 73° 15 W.; lat. 41° to 42° 2' N.; 88 miles long, and about 53 in average breadth; square miles, 4828: population, in 1756, 130,611; in 1774, 197,365; in 1782, 209,150; in 1790, 237,946; in 1800, 251,002; in 1810, 261,942; in 1820, 275,248; white males, 130,807; white females, 136,374; free colored persons, 7870; slaves, 97; persons engaged in agriculture, 50,518; in manufactures, 17,541; in commerce, 3581: militia, in 1821, 22,100.*-Hartford and New Haven are the seats of the state government. The legislature holds its sessions alternately in the two places. There are five incorporated cities in Connecticut-Hartford, New Haven, Middletown, New London and Norwich; and three boroughs Bridgeport, Stonington and Guilford. There are colleges at New Haven and

According to a recent account, Connecticut contains 41,416 houses, 2,607,869 acres of land, 1597 mills, 1827 stores and shops, 402 distilleries, 1211 manufactories, 46 fisheries, 33,358 horses, asses, &c., 219,783 neat cattle, 331,054 sheep, 5048 carriages, &c., 21,369 clocks.

Hartford; and at the latter place, also, an asylum for the education of the deaf and dumb. The state has a fund, which, in 1821, amounted to $1,858,094, the interest of which is appropriated to the support of schools. In no part of the world are the common and useful branches of education more generally understood. The inhabitants are distinguished for their habits of industry and sobriety. The present constitution was framed in 1818. The legislature, styled the general assembly, is composed of a senate of 12 members, and a house of representatives, 80 towns sending each 2 representatives: the other towns, founded since the charter of Charles II, in 1662, send 1 each. The governor, lieutenant-governor, senators, and representatives, are all chosen annually in April. The general assembly has one stated session in each year, on the first Wednesday in May, and such others as they judge necessary. Judges of the supreme and superior courts hold their offices during good behavior, but become disqualified at the age of 70.—No person is compelled to join, or support, or to be classed with or associated to, any congregation, church or religious association; but every person may be compelled to pay his proportion of the expenses of the society to which he may belong; but he may separate himself from the society by leaving a written notice of his wish with the clerk of such society.-The principal rivers are the Connecticut, Housatonic, Thames, Farmington and Naugatuck. The principal harbors are those of New London and New Haven. The face of the country is greatly diversified by mountains, hills and valleys. There are but few level tracts, and no considerable mountains. The greatest elevation is a range of small mountains on the west side of Connecticut river, being a continuation of the Green mountains. The hills are generally of moderate size, and occur in quick succession, presenting to the traveller an ever-varying prospect. The soil is generally fertile, though intermixed with portions that are comparatively thin and barren, and the whole is well watered. It is generally in a state of good cultivation, resembling, in many parts, a well-cultivated garden. The principal productions are Indian corn, rye, wheat in many parts, oats, barley, buckwheat, flax in large quantities, some hemp, potatoes, pumpkins, turnips, peas, beans, &c. Orchards are very numerous, and cider is made for exportation. The state is, however, generally better adapted to

Plainfield and Lebanon. Of these, Bellows falls, at Walpole, are the most remarkable. According to a survey made in 1824, the falls in the Connecticut, between Hanover (New Hampshire) and Enfield (Connecticut), measure 371 feet. On these falls were locks measuring 218 feet, viz., at South Hadley, 50 feet; Nutter's falls, 71 feet; Bellows falls, 48; Waterqueechy, 123; and White river, 36 feet. The Connecticut flows through a fine country. The land bordering upon it is generally of an excellent quality; and there are upon its banks many beautiful and flourishing towns; among which are Haverhill, Hanover, Charlestown and Walpole (New Hampshire); Newbury, Windsor and Brattleborough (Vermont); Greenfield, Hadley, Northampton and Springfield (Massachusetts); Hartford and Middletown, &c. (Connecticut).

CONON, an Athenian commander, was one of the generals who succeeded Alcibiades in the command of the fleet in the Peloponnesian war, and, engaging Callicratidas, was defeated; but afterwards gained a victory, in which the Spartan commander lost his life. On the subjugation of Athens, B. C. 405, he remained at Cyprus, forming plans for the restoration of the prosperity of his country. By persuading Artaxerxes, king of Persia, that the superiority of the Lacedæmonians was injurious to the safety of his dominions, and that they could only be checked by rendering the Athenians able to oppose them, he procured the command of a Persian fleet, B. C. 398, attacked the Spartan admiral Pisander near Cnidos, and, killing him with his own hand, defeated the Spartans, who lost the greatest part of their fleet. The empire of the sea was immediately transferred, and the power of the Lacedæmonians in Asia Minor immediately ceased. Conon then returned to Attica, and employed his sailors and workmen in restoring the fortifications of Athens. He fell a prey to the hatred and envy of the Lacedæmonians, who, in a treaty of peace with the Persians, accused him of plotting the delivery of Æolia and Ionia to his countrymen, and of the misappropriation of the king's money and forces. He was accordingly apprehended, and, as some writers relate, was put to death at Susa; others say that he made his escape; but the event is doubtful.

CONQUEST. By conquest is now generally understood the right over property acquired in war, or by superior force. In the feudal law, it had a somewhat different sense, meaning any means of acquir

ing an estate out of the common course of inheritance. (2 Bl. Comm. 243.) The right of conquest has been deduced as an inference of natural law, from the right to weaken our enemy, to compel him to make compensation for injuries, to force him to an equitable peace, and to deter or prevent him from future injuries. It presupposes a just war, and a right of appropriation growing out of it. It is now generally admitted as a part of the law of nations. If a war be unjust, it is plain that it can receive no sanction from the law of nature or the law of nations; and, therefore, no just acquisitions can arise from it. But who is to decide whether the war be just or unjust? If neutral nations attempt to decide the question without consent, they draw themselves into the quarrel, and may be involved in the war. The parties who wage war never avow that they are acting unjustly, and will not admit any superior, who has a right to decide such questions for them. Nations claim a perfect equality and independence, and therefore will not submit to the decision of any other sovereign. The only answer, in a practical view, that can be given to the question is, that every free and sovereign state must decide for itself, whether it is carrying on a just war, and what are the duties required of it in such a war. With a view to public safety and repose, neutral nations are understood to be bound to act upon certain rules, which may be called the voluntary law of nations. Among these rules the following are universally admitted:-1. that every regular war, as to its effects, is to be deemed, by neutral nations, just on both sides; 2. that whatever is permitted to the one to do, in virtue of the state of war, is also permitted to the other; 3. that the acquisitions made by each belligerent in the war are to be held lawful, and to be respected; 4. that neutral nations are bound to impartiality in their conduct to each of the belligerents. Many questions are discussed by jurists, in respect to the rights of conquest, some of which are of great nicety and subtilty. To enumerate them, without adverting to the various shades of opinion, would itself occupy a large discourse. We shall content ourselves, therefore, by enumerating a few only of the principles, which, by the benignity of religion and the enlarged influence of knowledge and public opinion, are now generally received among civilized nations. Conquest may respect either persons or things. It may respect movable or immovable property. It may apply to a whole nation, or only to a sin