terly insufficient a basis of representation the ancient estates are in our times, since the important classes of the learned (who were formerly represented in the clergy), artists, mechanics, merchants and manufacturers remain, on this system, unrepresented. 10. Saxe-Coburg received a constitution from its sovereign, Aug. 21, 1817, founded on the estates. When the diet is not sitting, a permanent committee watches over the maintenance of the constitution, and the execution of the laws. A further constitutional regulation was given Dec. 15, 1820, and the diet first assembled in 1821. 11. Saxe-Hildburghausen received a constitution, Jan. 7, 1818, founded on the estates. A permanent committee of the nobility, the cities and clergy, represents the diet when it is not sitting. 12. The principality of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt received a constitution, April 21, 1821, founded on the estates. 13. The principality of Lippe-Schaumburg received a constitution by a decree of Jan. 15, 1815. It is founded on the estates. 14. Lippe-Detmold received a constitution, June 8, 1819, from the princess-regent Paulina, drawn up by herself; but this instrument was too liberal for the old estates of the nobility and the cities, which protested against it, as did also the prince of Schaumburg as agnate. (q. v.) 15. The duchy of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel received a constitution, Jan. 19, 1820, founded on the estates and corporations. It provides only one house of legislature. In respect to the granting of taxes, the old constitution was retained. 16. The free city of Frankfort, during the reign of Napoleon, received a liberal organization, Oct. 10, 1806. July 18, 1816, an act was passed by the senate, supplementary to the old constitution of the city, when it was an imperial free city, which was accepted by the citizens. The former privileges of the patrician families do not exist any longer. 17, 18, 19. The three Hanseatic cities have reestablished, since 1814, their old constitutions, founded on the ancient corporations, and, like several others, little in unison with the demands of the age. (See Constitutions des trois Villes Libres-Anséatiques, by Villers, Leipsic, 1814.) 20. The duke of Saxe-Meiningen established a constitution, Sept. 4, 1824, founded on the estates.H. The Swiss confederacy was transformed, by the French directory, in 1799, into the Helvetic republic, with a democratic form of government. This gave rise to bloody contests. Bonaparte, by the act of mediation, Feb. 19, 1803, gave a new federative constitution to this country, com

bining ancient and modern elements. Sept. 8, 1814, the cantons convened again, and received into the confederacy of the 19 cantons 3 new ones-Valais, Geneva and Neufchatel. Each canton has its own representative constitution, founded on the elements of the old system, together with the principles of the act of mediation. In some, the aristocratic principle prevails; in others, the democratic. Some cantons are purely democratic, as Valais, Coire, Zug, &c. Neufchatel has a constitution in which aristocratic, democratic and monarchical principles are combined. The king of Prussia-the sovereign of this canton-established this constitution, June 18, and Dec. 26, 1814.-I. A provisory representative constitution was adopted by the national congress of the Hellenes, Jan. 1(13), 1822, at Epidaurus. According to this instrument, the government was to consist of two bodies-the legislative senate, composed of deputies elected by the people, and the executive council. In July, 1827, the national assembly at Napoli di Romania adopted the constitution of 1827. Count Capo d'Istria was chosen president, and entered on his office Jan. 22, 1828. The state of this unfortunate nation, however, is so unsettled, that we must still expect many changes.-In Asia, several countries have fundamental laws. These, it is true, hardly deserve the name of constitutions, since they are destitute of those guarantees of the rights of the people, which we are accustomed to consider as integral parts of a constitution. Yet several of them, however, are, in fact, subject to as strict limitations as the constitutions of many of those states which we have just enumerated. Nay, it would be far more difficult to change certain fundamental laws in some Asiatic states, founded, as they often are, on the religion and ancient customs of the people, than to introduce a new constitution into many of the European states. We have seen that the mere decrees of certain European sovereigns have been sufficient to establish, change, abolish, reëstablish and reäbolish constitutions in the states under their rule. One point, however, must be kept in viewthat, in almost all the European constitutions, the idea of a representation of the people is a fundamental one, however imperfect may be the means and forms provided for securing it. But we know of no fundamental law, in any Asiatic state, which embraces the idea of representation; and we may, therefore, be excused from going into a consideration of the Asiatic forms of government, in an

article on constitutions.-Having thus enumerated the European states which have received constitutions, it may not be uninteresting to take a survey of those European states which are governed by sovereigns entirely absolute. Austria was mentioned among those countries in which constitutions founded on the old feudal estates exist; but, although this may be the case in point of form, yet the Austrian monarchy is virtually one of the most absolute governments that can exist, and has systematically pursued, for a long series of years, so arbitrary a course, in many respects (including the administration of the finances and the intellectual cultivation of the people), that we can hardly find any thing parallel in govern ments which claim to be purely absolute; as, for instance, in Prussia. The following governments are without constitutions: -1. Piedmont, Savoy and Nice. 2. Tuscany, Parma and Modena. 3. The Two Sicilies. 4. The States of the Church. 5. Prussia, with the exception of Neufchatel, though the royal decree of May 22, 1815, just before the last campaign against Napoleon, promised the nation a representative constitution. The king, some years since, established provincial estates, founded on the different estates already enumerated, and the city corporations, which have the right to be consulted in regard to taxation, and to discuss what is laid before them by the king, through the marshal of the diet. Their rights, however, are, in reality, nugatory, because they have not even the power of making propositions to the government; and when, a few years ago, the estates of the province of the Lower Rhine petitioned the king not to abolish the trial by jury, which had been in use on the left bank of the Rhine from the time when that district had been connected with France, the king was highly displeased, and reminded the estates that they were convened only to consider what was laid before them by his marshal. 6. The electorate of Hesse-Cassel. In 1815, the elector, having resumed possession of the electorate, after the abolition of the kingdom of Westphalia, convened not only the old estates, those of the nobility, clergy and citizens, but also that of the peasants, which gave rise to animadversion; and, on the assembly's disagree ing to the new constitution, which he presented to them, the elector dissolved the body; since which time the government has been entirely absolute. 7. The landgraviate of Hesse-Homburg. 8. The duchy of Anhalt. Dec. 28, 1810, this little coun

try received from the reigning duke a constitution, modelled entirely on that of the French empire; but the guardian of his successor suspended the constitution, Oct. 24, 1812. 9. The principalities of Hohenzollern-Hechingen and Siegmaringen. 10. The principality of SchwarzburgSondershausen. 11. The duchy of Oldenburg. 12. The duchy of Holstein. Both the latter, however, are about to receive, according to public report, constitutions founded on the estates. 13. The kingdom of Denmark, in which the ancient constitution was abolished in 1660. The people cooperated with the government in the overthrow of the old system, as it was favorable only to the nobility and the privileged corporations, the former of whom greatly abused their powers. 14. The empire of Russia. 15. Spain. 16. Turkey. 17. Portugal.

America. The English colonies in North America, before the declaration of the independence of the U. States, were all governed by charters from the crown of England, the principal features of which were a house of representatives, and a governor and body of counsellors, the first chosen by the people, the two last appointed by the king (or proprietors), except in the cases of Connecticut and Rhode Island plantations, in which the people were empowered to choose all their officers. The constitution prepared by the distinguished philosopher, John Locke, for South Carolina, at the request of the proprietors of the territory, operated no better than Plato's Republic would probably have done, if it had ever been put into practice. The constitution consisted of 120 articles, and was founded on aristocratical and feudal principles. Three classes of nobility were to be established, viz., barons, caciques and landgraves. The first were to possess 12, the second, 24, and the third, 48,000 acres of land, which were to remain inalienable in their families. The parliament, which consisted of one house only, was composed of the lords, proprietors, landgraves, caciques, and deputies from the free inhabitants holding inheritable property. This plan of government produced nothing but anarchy and discord. In the following Abstract of the Constitutions of the U. States, the constitution of Virginia framed in 1776 is given, since the draft of the constitution adopted by the late convention (1830) in that state has not been acted on by the people at the time when we write. If it should be accepted by them, the reader will find a sketch of it in the article Virginia.

General court, annually; senate General court, annually; senate Legislature of Maine, annually; Congress; house of representaof 40, and house of representa- of 12, and house of representa- senate and house of representatives, and one third of senate, of Office.

tives.

Last Wednesday in May and in First Wednesday in June. First Wednesday in January. January.

Senators, freehold of £300 or per- Freehold; district residence. Five years' citizenship, 1 year Senators, age 30, 9 years' citizensonal estate of £600, 5 years' resi- Senators, age 30, 7 years' state state and 3 months' district dence. Representatives, freehold residence; representatives, two dence. Senators, age 25. of £100 or ratable estate of years'.

£200, 1 year's residence.

Senators, in proportion to taxa- Senators, in proportion to taxa- In proportion to population. tion; representatives, to number tion; representatives, to number of ratable polls.

By the people; annually.

Freehold of £1000; 7 years' res- Freehold; age 30; 7 years' resi- Citizenship; 5 years' state resi-Being a natural born citizen, or a idence; of the Christian religion. dence. dence; age 30. citizen at the adoption of consti- Qualificatution; age 35; 14 yrs' residence.

Qualified negative; official pat-Qualified negative; official pat-Qualified negative; official pat-Qualified negative; by consent ronage and pardoning power, ronage and pardoning power, ronage and pardoning power, of senate makes treaties, appoints jointly with council. jointly with council. jointly with council. ambassadors, and principal officers of the U. States; pardoning power.