bled him to make additions to the stores of scientific facts. Lalande praises his accuracy in observations, his patience, his diligence, and his courage in overcoming every obstacle, in the highest terms. He died Dec. 2, 1805, of a lung fever. CHABERT; a Frenchman, who attracted much attention in London, in the autumn of 1829, by swallowing several species of poison, and exposing himself to a great heat in the Argyle rooms, and in various other places, in presence of a large number of persons of respectability. He swallowed, in a manner which precluded the idea of deception, from 10 to 20 grains of phosphorus, and a teaspoonful of prussic acid, before a company including several medical gentlemen. The antidote which he used, he said, was extremely simple, and the newspapers stated that gentlemen of the London medical faculty had been treating with him for the purchase of his secret. Chabert exposed himself to the heat of an oven, from which he brought a thermometer standing at 380°; his pulse was then beating 168 times in a minute. He called himself the fire king. (For a more minute account, we must refer the reader to the London papers of that time.) CHACABUCO, BATTLE OF; celebrated in the history of modern Chile, In the beginning of 1817, the Spaniards were completely masters of Chile, having, in 1813, beaten Carrera, and compelled him, and others, his compatriots, to cross the mountains for safety. But, on the 12th of February, 1817, the troops of San Martin, commanded by O'Higgins, gained a decisive victory over the Spaniards under Maroto, at Chacabuco, which, with that of Maypu, fought afterwards, gave independence to the country. (See Chile, O'Higgins, Maypu.)-Stevenson's S. Am., vol. iii. p. 131. CHACTAWS. (See Choctaws.) CHERONEA; a place in Boeotia, famous for the battle fought there, 338 B. C., between Philip of Macedon and the confederated Greeks. (See Greece and Philip.) CHAFALAYA; the western branch of the mouth of the Mississippi, which runs into St. Bernard's bay. CHAGAING, OF CHAGONG; a town of Birmah, on the west bank of the Irrawaddy, opposite to Ava, partly at the foot, and partly on the side of a hill, sometimes the residence of the king; lon. 96° E.; lat. 21° 56′ N. It stands very high, being built on the slope of several hills, the tops of which are covered with numerous temples, most of them ornamented with spires and gilded roofs, forming a beauti VOL. III. 5 ful prospect. The houses are of timber, with tiled roofs. The town derives great riches from its quarries of beautiful white marble, and the manufacture of idols. These are chiefly statues of Boodh or Gaudama, the deity of the country, sitting cross-legged on a pedestal. It is likewise a mart for cotton, exported to China. CHAILLOT ; a village which is situated behind the Tuileries, and now included within the limits of Paris. It is ornamented with splendid country-seats and gardens, affording delightful prospects of the Seine and the surrounding country. On the extremity of the quai Billy, opposite to the celebrated bridge of Jena (now the bridge of the military school), is the unfinished palace of the king of Rome, commenced by Napoleon at an enormous expense. The ruins of this palace, on entering the city from the side of Versailles, afford a disagreeable prospect, and an unpleasant contrast with the beautiful architecture of the military school, immediately opposite to it. The parish church is the sepulchre of the brave count Josias Rantzau, marshal of France, who was buried here in 1650. The nuns of the order of Sainte Marie de la visitation had a celebrated convent here, where persecuted grandeur often sought an asylum. Here died, in 1669, the queen Henrietta of France, daughter of king Henry IV, wife of Charles I king of England, and her niece, the princess Louisa, of the Bavarian palatinate, who, with the other nuns, used to make hay in the neighboring fields. CHAIN, in surveying, is a measure consisting of a certain number of links of iron wire, serving to take the dimensions of fields, &c. Chain. In nautical language, chains are strong links or plates of iron, the lower ends of which are bolted through a ship's side to the timbers. They are on the outside, and are used to contain the blocks called dead-eyes, by which the shrouds of the masts are extended.—Top chains are those which preserve the lower yards from falling, when, in time of battle, the ropes are rendered incapable of service, CHAIN-CABLE. (See Cable.) CHAIN-TIMBER; a timber of large dimensions, placed in the middle of a building, to give it strength. CHAIN-WALES. (See Channels.) CHAISE, PERE DE LA. (See Lachaise and Cemetery.) CHALCEDON (at present, the village Kademki); under the Roman dominion, a flourishing city in Bithynia, on the north it now has in the Catholic, Greek, and many Protestant churches. west point of Asia Minor, opposite Constantinople, and not far from the present Scutari. At this place, in the autumn of CHALCEDONY; a mineral including sev451, Marcian, the emperor of the East, eral varieties, which have received distinct held the fourth general council, for the names in the arts. It occurs in small purpose of destroying the ascendency of veins, or in cavities of other minerals, and the Monophysite doctrines (see Monophy- appears to have been formed by the filtrasites), obtained, in 449, by the influence tion of silicious matter.-1. The common of the Alexandrian patriarch Dioscuros, at chalcedony has a cloudy or milky appearthe (so called) robber-synod at Ephesus; ance when held between the eye and the and to establish a creed of Christian faith, light. It is semitransparent, or only transwhich, equally remote from the Nestorian lucent in various degrees. Though someand Monophysite doctrines, should satisfy times nearly white, its more common color all parties of orthodox Christians. The is gray, more or less shaded with blue, emperor's commissioners took the lead, yellow, brown, green, &c. The surface and after them came the legates of the is often rough or uneven. Its fracture is Roman bishop Leo I, who had endeavored usually even, though seldom smooth. It to establish articles of faith without the is usually contained in amygdaloid, poraid of a council, but deemed it judicious phyry, greenstone or basalt, or in the cavto maintain his influence there, and take ities of these rocks. It sometimes travrevenge for the excommunication pro- erses them in veins. Sometimes it occurs nounced against him by Dioscuros. This in metallic veins, also in granite and council, which consisted of 600 bishops, gneiss. Oberstein, in the palatinate of mostly of the East, deposed Dioscuros, the Rhine, is one of the best localities. and, after violent debates, adopted into Fine specimens are found in the islands their articles of faith, at the instigation of of Faroe. It is found, also, in Vicentino the Roman legate, the tenor of a missive and Iceland, and in Trevascus mine, in of Leo to Flavian, the former patriarch Cornwall, in New South Shetland, in of Constantinople, directed against Euty- Nova Scotia, and in many parts of the U. ches, the founder of Monophysitism, be- States. It receives a good polish, and is sides the confessions of faith of the gen- much used for ring-stones, seals, &c.—2 eral councils of Nice and Constantinople; Another of the principal varieties is caralso two synodal missives of the former nelian. The prevailing color of this varipatriarch, Cyril of Alexandria, condemn- ety is red; sometimes it has a tinge of ing the Nestorian tenets. The articles of yellow or brown, or is nearly white. Its faith settled by them declared the mother colors, or their different shades, someof Jesus the parent of God, and establish- times appear in spots or stripes, or gradued, in opposition to the Monophysites, the ally pass into each other. It is commonly belief of two natures in Christ, existing semitransparent, sometimes only transluwithout mixture or change, without divis- cent. Its geological situation is similar ion or separation, so that, by the union of to that of common chalcedony, which it the two natures in one person and sub- often accompanies. The finest specimens, stance, their distinction is not destroyed, sometimes called Oriental carnelian, come but the characteristics of each are retain- from Cambay, Surat, &c. in India. It is ed. Besides this creed, the council pro- obtained, also, from Arabia, Siberia, Sarmulgated 30 canons against the abuses of dinia and Surinam. It is found on lake the clergy, of which canons the 28th con- Superior near Portage river, in Missouri ceded to the patriarch of Constantinople at Herculaneum, &c., in Massachusetts at equal rights and privileges with the Ro- Deerfield. It receives a good polish, and is man, to whom it merely gave precedence much employed for seals, bracelets, &c. of rank; and thus the matter remained, The ancients often engraved on carnelian. notwithstanding the remonstrances of the 3. Sardonyx differs from carnelian in its Roman legates. Bloody rebellions in Palestine and Egypt were the immediate consequences of the decrees of the council of Chalcedon against Dioscuros and the Monophysites; and not till after a long period of ecclesiastical contests, during which the Monophysites were entirely separated from the orthodox, and formed a distinct church, did the Chalcedon formula of faith obtain the authority which color only, which is reddish-yellow, or nearly orange, sometimes with a tinge of brown. It often appears blood-red by transmitted light. It is found in Massachusetts, at Deerfield, in greenstone. CHALDEA, in ancient geography; the southerly part of Babylonia, towards Arabia and the Persian gulf, lying west of the mouth of the Tigris and Euphrates, formerly a fertile country, now barren. The Chaldæans were a Semitic tribe, and one of the most famous nations of Asia. They were the first people who worked in metals, and were not destitute of astronomical knowledge. They founded the Babylonian and Assyrian empires. Their name remained with the priesthood of the Babylonians, whose members were employed in the worship of the gods, in expounding their scriptures, prophesying, the practice of medicine, interpreting dreams, also in conjurations, magic, astrology, &c. They kept their knowledge secret from the people. None of their writings have been handed down to us. It is supposed that the Chaldæans were originally called Kephenians, and lived on the Caucasus, and that they settled on the Persian gulf about 800 B. C. (See Babylonia.) CHALDEAN CHRISTIANS. (See Sects, Syrian Christians, and Christians of St. Thomas.) CHALK. (See Lime.) CHALLENGE, to jurors, is an objection either to the whole panel or array, that is, the whole body of jurors returned, or to the polls, that is, to the jurors individually; and it is either peremptory, that is, without assigning any reason, or for cause assigned. A peremptory challenge is allowed to be made only by the party accused, and not by the government, or prosecuting officer, and only in capital cases; and is said to be permitted on the ground that a man is liable to conceive a prejudice against another from his mere looks and appearance, for which he can give no reason; and such may be the case of the accused; and it is conceded in favor of life, that, in such case, he may exclude the juror without assigning any reason; and also on the ground that, by questioning a juror as to any objection to him, his prejudice may be thereby excited against the prisoner, who, to save himself from the effect of such prejudice, is permitted to have him rejected. The ground on which peremptory challenge is allowed, supposes the prisoner's life to be in danger, and he is not entitled to it if he pleads in bar or abatement; for the trial of these pleas does not decide on his life. He must, before making such challenge, plead "not guilty," or some plea, the trial of which decides on his life. Having pleaded such a plea, the accused might, by the common law, peremptorily challenge 35 jurors; but the statute of Henry VIII, c. 14, limited the number to 20, in felony, and the limitation is to this number in some of the U. States. By the act of congress of April 30, 1790, a peremptory challenge of 35 jurors is allowed in trials for treason, and 20 in those cases of felony mentioned in the statute. A challenge of the whole panel may be made, because the jury is illegally drawn or summoned, whereby it is not a legal jury; and a challenge of this description may be made by the government as well as by the prisoner. Challenge to the polls may be made both in civil and criminal suits for cause, as that the juror is an alien, not from the proper district, not duly qualified as a freeholder, not of suitable age, &c., or is near akin to one of the parties, is biased, has been guilty of felony, is interested, or is subject to any other exception, according to the common principles of proceeding, or the provisions of any statute on the subject. In court-martials, a prisoner who objects to either of the judges must assign his reasons. In other words, peremptory challenges are not allowed in these courts. The privilege of challenging here belongs equally to the prisoner and the prosecutor. The right of challenging the members of a court-martial prevails on the continent of Europe, as well as in England and America. Challenge to fight a duel is punishable, in England, with fine and imprisonment. In several of the U. States, this offence is subject to the additional punishment of ineligibility to any public office, either for life or for a limited term. (See Duel.) CHALONS. There are two considerable cities of this name in France-Chalonssur-Saone and Chalons-sur-Marne. The latter is the most important. Anciently it was called Catalaunum. It lies on the river Marne, and is the capital of the department of the Marne. It is 20 miles east of Paris; lon. 4° 22′ E.; lat. 48° 57' N.; population, 10,784. Before the revolution, it was the see of a bishop, and chief place of the generality of Champagne. It has manufactures of coarse woollen cloth, is well built, and contains a Gothic cathedral, 10 churches, a public library of 30,000 volumes, a museum, a botanic garden, and a cabinet of natural history. Attila, the Scourge of God, was here defeated by the Romans after an obstinate and sanguinary contest. CHALOTAIS, Louis René de Caradeuc de la; attorney-general at the parliament of Rennes. He was born at Rennes, March 6, 1701, and died July 12, 1785. He is celebrated chiefly for the legal process against him, which accelerated the approach of the French revolution. By the force of his eloquence and the in dependence of his principles, Chalotais gained the esteem of the people, and, after the 60th year of his age, excited general attention by the attack which he commenced against the Jesuits. The French court had given them permission to remain in the kingdom, but sought to weaken their influence. D'Alembert, Duclos, Condillac, Mably, Montesquieu and Diderot, the friends of Chalotais, strove to effect the abolition of the order in France. But it was attacked with the greatest violence in Chalotais' celebrated work, which first appeared in 1761, and has been frequently reprinted-Comptes rendus des Constitutions des Jésuites; which he first read, in his official capacity, before the parliament of Rennes. His example was followed in the other parliaments, and the consequence was a dissolution of the order. Chalotais was supported, in this process, by that hatred which infallibly attends the abuse of power, and particularly by the numerous Jansenists in France, who had so long opposed the Jesuits. He was aided, also, by the irresolution of the court, and the envy of the other religious orders. In vain did Caveyrac, who attempted, at first, to justify the repeal of the edict of Nantes, write in defence of the Jesuits; in vain did Menouc, Griffet, and the ingenious Cerutti, of their own party, plead the services which they had rendered to the cause of God and to the throne of France, and the brilliant talents which had been developed in their schools. The independent character of Chalotais soon gave his enemies an opportunity of revenging themselves, when a dispute arose between the court and the parliament of Rennes, on account of the refusal of the latter to register certain financial edicts which seemed to infringe the privileges of the duchy of Bretagne. After serving his country for 36 years, Chalotais was arrested with his son and five counsellors of the parliament, who favored his cause, and thrown into prison. He suffered this treatment as the supposed author of several anonymous letters to one of the ministry, in which the style of a person of the lowest class was imitated. The prisoner in vain protested his innocence in several memorials (1766 et seq.), seconded by the pen of Voltaire and the public voice. The commission appointed to examine him published their proceedings, and condemned him before the regular forms of law had been all complied with. Calonne, the minister who conducted the process, and the duke of Aiguillon, governor of the province, were the personal enemies of the prisoner. The parliament of Rennes was dissolved, and a new one summoned, which assumed the right of judging in the case of Chalotais. But the process had scarcely commenced, when the greatest part of the judges refused to serve; the rest, 13 in number, were refused by the prisoner on account of their partiality to the side of the prosecution. The voice of the people at length prevailed. The remonstrances of the court, and of the duke of Choiseul, determined the king to put a stop to the proceedings. The pris oners were banished to Saintes. Chalotais was requested to resign his office, but he refused. The parliament of Rennes desired the reinstatement of all its members. New pamphlets, in relation to the suit, appeared every day, and 150 distrib utors of them were imprisoned in the Bicètre. The officers of government at length grew weary of burning the numerous publications, or, as it was said publicly, of burning the truth. From this te dious prosecution of the attorney-general, a new action arose. The parliament of Rennes commenced a process against the governor, the duke of Aiguillon. Louis XVI, the succeeding king, set the attorney at liberty. After 10 years of persecution, he was reinstated in his office at Rennes. The whole process against Chalotais was characterized by weakness as much as by tyranny, and indicated the approaching ruin of a despotism which had lost its energy. In 1826, a Jesuit writer in Paris assailed the character of Chalotais anew. A prosecution was commenced against him by the heirs of the accused, and he was brought in guilty. CHAMADE, in military language (generally derived from the Italian chiamare, to call), is a signal, either by beat of drum or sound of trumpet, to obtain a conference, when any matter is to be proposed to the enemy. CHAMBER. Forcellini defines camera an arched roof or ceiling; Herodotus uses the word kapápa, to signify a covered wagon; Ottfried and Notker, two early German writers, use kammer to dencte a vaulted chamber, the keeper of which, as early as the time of king Dagobert, was called camerarius. The public treasury of the princes was called, in the 10th century, camera; and in German, down to the present period, those sciences, an acquaintance with which is essential to the proper administration of the different departments of government, are called cameral-wissenschaften. Words derived from the Latin term camera are common in modern European languages: thus camera in Italian; in French, chambre; in English, chamber; in German, kammer; in Spanish, camara; in Swedish, kamar. In many languages, chamber is used to designate a branch of government whose members assemble in a common apartment: thus we have the camera apostolica, in Rome; camara de justicia, in Spain; chambre des députés, in France; kammergericht, in Germany, &c.-Chamber of a cannon, in artillery; that part of the bore of a cannon which receives the powder with which it is charged.—Cham ber of a mortar; the space where the powder lies.-Chamber of a mine; the place where the charge of powder is lodged that is to be used for blowing up the works.-Chamber of a battery; a place sunk under ground to hold the powder, bombs, &c., so as to preserve them from rain or moisture.-Chamber of a lock is the space between the gates of a lock in a canal, in which the barge rises and sinks, so as to pass the lock. CHAMBER OF DEPUTIES. (See Charte Constitutionnelle.) CHAMBER OF PEERS. (See Charte Constitutionnelle.) CHAMBER, IMPERIAL. The imperial chamber (in German, Reichskammergericht) was a court of the German empire, established at Wetzlar, near the Rhine. It was instituted by the emperor Maximilian I, in 1495. In 1806, when the German empire was dissolved, this court, of course, expired. The imperial chamber had concurrent jurisdiction with the aulic council (q. v.) at Vienna, and was intended, among other things, to adjust the disputes between the different independent members of the German empire, and also such as arose between them and the emperor. The intention of this establishment certainly was good, and its effect, at first, beneficial. But the immense mass of cases which came before it, together with the national pedantry of the Germans, eventually occasioned the protraction of the processes to an interminable length. By the conditions of the peace of Westphalia, after the thirty years' war, particularly by the treaty of Osnaburg, in 1648, the imperial chamber was composed of a Catholic judge, 4 presidents, named by the emperor (2 Catholic and 2 Protestant), and 50 counsellors, 26 of whom were Catholics, and the rest Protestants. After that time, the members of the court were much reduced. The sentences were without appeal, but were often powerless, because the different German princes frequently refused to allow them to be executed in their territories. The history of the imperial chamber affords another instance of the correctness of Napoleon's judgment in dissolving the fabric of the German empire, conformably to the demands of the age. CHAMBERLAIN; a court officer, originally employed, as the name indicates, either to take charge of the private apartments of the king, or of the treasury, called, in the 10th century, camera. (See Chamber.) The golden key, which is worn by the chamberlains of the European courts on two small golden buttons (as well as the buttons themselves, when the key is omitted), indicates, also, the origin of the office. At present, their employment (when their office is not merely nominal) is to attend on the persons of the princes and their consorts. There is generally a chief or high chamberlain. This officer, in England, is called lord great chamberlain of England. His office is one of great antiquity and honor, being ranked as the sixth great office of the English crown. He dresses and undresses the king before and after the coronation. There exists, also, a lord chamberlain of the household, a lord chamberlain of the queen's household, &c. In fact, there are almost as many chamberlains as chambers.-Chamberlain of London is the officer who keeps the city money, which is laid up in a chamber of London, in Guildhall. He also presides over the affairs of masters and apprentices, makes free of the city, &c. CHAMBERRY, or CHAMBERI (anciently Cameria, Camerium, and Cameriacum); capital of Savoy, at the conflux of two small rivers, near the Isere; 124 posts E. Lyons; lon. 5° 55′ E.; lat. 45° 26 N.; population, 11,991; houses, 1985. It is a bishop's see. It contains a cathedral, 2 parish churches, 14 convents, 4 hospitals, a college, and a public library. In its vicinity are excellent baths, much frequented in summer. It is situated in a delightful valley, and is defended by a castle placed on an eminence. Its suburbs are large and elegant; all the houses have piazzas. It has considerable manufactures and distilleries.-At this place the emperor Sigismund erected the earldon of Savoy into a dukedom, and it was once the residence of the princes; but, after the court was removed to Turin, it lost its splendor. CHAMBERS, Ephraim; a miscellaneous writer, and compiler of a popular diction |