gent mode of cultivation, is obtained in abundance. The island also produces much flax, and oranges, which form an article of export, in perfection. It is covered with forests of chestnut and oaktrees, great quantities of olive-trees, firtrees and birch-trees, which reach the elevation of from 120 to 130 feet. The breeding of cattle is carried on here to a great extent; but the horse, ass and mule are of a small breed: the horned cattle are, indeed, large, but very lean; and the wool of the sheep is coarse. The tunny, anchovy, and oyster fisheries afford the inhabitants one of their principal employments. The mountains contain various kinds of minerals; and yet the art of working mines is almost wholly unknown. The iron is celebrated for its good qualities. The Corsicans are still nearly in a state of nature. The majority of them are Italians, and profess the Catholic religion. Industry is unknown. Even the most necessary mechanics are wanting: each one makes for himself almost every thing he has need of. Their habitations, furniture and clothing are miserable, and there is a great want of good seminaries for education. Valor, love of freedom, indolence, and desire of revenge, are the characteristics of the Corsicans. As late as the year 1822, the prefect of Corsica, in a pamphlet, urged the French government to legalize the practice of duelling there, because the quarrels of the inhabitants often became hereditary feuds. Until the first Punic war, the Carthaginians were masters of this island. They were succeeded by the Romans. In later times, Corsica was, for a long time, under the dominion of the Vandals, and afterwards passed successively into the hands of the Greek emperors and the Goths. In 850, the Corsicans were conquered by the Saracens, who held them in subjection until the beginning of the 11th century; at which time they fell under the dominion of Pisa. In 1284, this island submitted to the dominion of the Genoese, who had before, in 806, subdued it, but were unable to retain possession of it for a long time. Exasperated by the oppressions of the Genoese government during 400 years, the Corsicans took up arms, in 1729, and, since that time, have never submitted to the Genoese. Genoa called in the imperial forces in 1730, and the French, in 1738, to their assistance. In 1736, baron Theodore von Neuhof (see Theodore), a Westphalian, so won the affections of the Corsicans, that they elected him king, under the name of Theodore I. He left them,

upon the landing of the French, to seek for foreign aid. The French evacuated the island, on the breaking out of the German war, in 1741, and another insurrection took place. In 1755, the Corsican senate appointed Pascal Paoli (q. v.) their general, who conducted their affairs with so much success, that the Genoese, even with the assistance of the troops of the French garrisons (after 1764), were able to retain in their possession only a few maritime towns, with the capital, Bastia, and renounced the hope of ever bringing the island again into subjection. They, therefore, in 1768, abandoned these places to France, by a treaty, which Spinola and the duke of Choiseul concluded at Paris, in which it was stipulated, that the king of France should reduce the island, and govern it until the republic should repay the expenses of the war. This convention was a mere subterfuge to deceive the English, and to save the senate from the reproach of a sale. The French thought that the subjugation of Corsica could be effected by a small military force; but Paoli, in the expectation of assistance from England, made so spirited a resistance, that the expedition soon cost the French 30,000,000 livres, although they had gained no important advantages. The number of the French troops was afterwards increased, so that they amounted to 30,000 men, under the marshal de Vaux. England still remained inactive; and, in several actions, the Corsicans were so unmindful of their duty, that Paoli, in despair, gave up all thoughts of resistance, and, in June, 1769, fled to England, where he was supported by a pension from the king. A partisan warfare was, however, maintained in the mountains until 1774. At the time of the French revolution, Corsica was incorporated with France, as a separate department, and sent deputies to the national convention. Paoli now returned to his native land; but the terrorists required his presence at Paris, where he would inevitably have been put to death. He therefore unfurled the banner of the Death's head (the old Corsican arms), and summoned his countrymen to his standard. With the assistance of the English, who landed Feb. 18, 1794, he reduced Bastia, May 22, and Calvi, Aug. 4. The Corsicans submitted to the British sceptre, in a general convention of deputies, at Corte, June 18, 1794. Corsica was constituted a kingdom, under the government of a viceroy (Elliot); the constitution and laws of England were adopted; and a parliament, such as

Ireland had, was established. But a large part of the people were averse to the English, whom they regarded as heretics, and the French party again appeared on the island, in Oct., 1796, under general Gentili. Sickness rendered the situation of the English very critical: their power was still further weakened by the reduction of the neighboring city of Leghorn, by the French, in 1796; and, in consequence, they evacuated Corsica. Since 1811, the island has formed a French department, of which Bastia is the capital. The revenue received from the island by France, in 1821, amounted only to 500,000 francs, while the administration of it costs the crown, yearly, the sum of 3,000,000 francs. (See Memoirs of Napoleon, Fourth Part (London, 1824), by count Montholon; Sketches of Corsica in 1823, with Specimens of its National Poetry, by Robert Benson (London, 1825, with 51 copperplate engravings); and Boswell's Account of Corsica.)

CORSO. The Corso is one of the principal streets in Rome, and, like the chief streets in many Italian cities (Florence, for example), derives its name from the horse-races which enliven the evenings of the carnival. The Corso, at Rome, is nearly 3500 paces in length, and is enclosed by high and mostly splendid edifices; but its breadth is not proportionate; so that, in most parts, not above three carriages can go abreast. The higher class of citizens take the air in carriages, which form a very long row. This evening promenade, which, in all large Italian cities is splendid, and is imitated in very small towns (although it may have only a few coaches), attracts great numbers of spectators on foot. The carnival is the gayest of the festivals; and, at this time, the Corso appears in its greatest splendor. (See Göthe's description of the Roman carnival and the Corso.)

CORTES. The cortes was the old assembly of the estates in Spain and Portugal. In Spain, the cortes of Castile, which was composed of the nobility of the first rank, the superior ecclesiastics, the knights of the orders of St. James, Calatrava and Alcantara, and the representatives of certain cities, held the first rank during the time of the united Spanish monarchy. In early times, the king was very dependent upon them; indeed, they were invested with the power of making war, and frequently exercised it in opposition to the throne. In the original constitution of Arragon, the form of government was very remarkable. A supreme judge,

called el justizia, selected from persons of the second class, presided over the administration of the government. He decided all questions and disputes between the king and his subjects, and confined the royal power within the constitutional limits. King Ferdinand of Arragon and Isabella of Castile succeeded in rendering themselves independent of the estates (las cortes); and afterwards, when the Castilians dared to resist an unconstitutional tax, at a meeting convoked at Toledo, by Charles, in 1538, the king abolished this assembly of the estates. After this, neither the clergy nor nobility were assembled: deputies from 18 cities were sometimes, however, convened, but this only in case subsidies were to be granted. Philip II restrained the liberties of the Arragonese in 1591. After the Spanish war of succession, Philip V deprived those provinces which had adhered to the Austrian party of the privileges that still remained to them. From that time, the cortes were convened only to pay homage to the king, or the prince of Asturias, or when a question respecting the succession to the throne was to be determined. But when Napoleon attempted to extend his influence over Spain (see the articles Ferdinand VII, and Spain since 1808), he convoked (June 15, 1808) a junta of the cortes at Bayonne. In their last session (June 7, 1812), a new constitution was adopted by them. The 9th article regulated the powers and duties of the cortes, and provided that they should consist of 25 archbishops, 25 nobles, and 122 representatives of the people. Napoleon afterwards attempted, by offering to restore the cortes to their ancient importance, to gain over the Spanish nobility, and, through them, the people, but failed. (In regard to the new cortes in Spain and Portugal, see those articles.) In 1828, don Miguel assembled the cortes of Portugal, in order to be acknowledged by them, and to give his usurpation an appearance of legitimacy.

CORTEZ, Fernando, the conqueror of Mexico, born in 1485, at Medelin, in Estremadura, went to the West Indies in 1504, where Velasquez, governor of Cuba, gave him the command of a fleet, which he sent on a voyage of discovery. Cortez quitted San-lago, Nov. 18, 1518, with 10 vessels, 600 Spaniards, 18 horses, and some field-pieces. He landed in the gulf of Mexico. The sight of the horses, on which the Spaniards were mounted; the movable fortresses, in which they had crossed the ocean; the iron which covered

them; the noise of the cannon; all these objects alarmed the natives. Cortez entered the town of Mexico Nov. 18, 1519. Montezuma, the sovereign of the country, received him as his master; and the inhabitants, it is said, thought him a god and a child of the sun. He destroyed the idols in the temples, to whom human sacrifices were offered, and placed in their room images of the virgin Mary and of the saints. In the mean time, he made continual progress towards getting possession of the country, forming alliances with several caciques, enemies to Montezuma, and assuring himself of the others by force or stratagem. On a general of Montezuma attacking the Spaniards, in obedience to a secret order, Cortez repaired to the imperial palace, had the commander and his officers burnt alive, and forced the emperor, while in chains, to acknowledge, publicly, the sovereignty of Charles V. The unhappy monarch added to this homage a present of a large quantity of pure gold, and a number of precious stones. But the jealousy of Velasquez was so much excited by the deeds of his representative, that he sent an army against him. Cortez, reinforced by fresh troops from Spain, advanced to meet it, gained over the soldiers who bore arms against him, and, with their assistance, again made war with the Mexicans, who had also revolted against their own emperor, Montezuma, whom they accused of treachery. After Montezuma, who had hoped to restore tranquillity by showing himself to the multitude, had fallen a victim to their rage, Guatimozin, his nephew and son-in-law, was acknowledged as emperor by the Mexicans, and gained some advantages over the Spaniards. He defended his crown during three months, but could not withstand the Spanish artillery. Cortez again took possession of Mexico, and, in 1521, the emperor, the empress, the ministers, and the whole court, were in his power. The unhappy Guatimozin was subjected to horrid cruelties to make him disclose the place where his treasures were concealed, and was afterwards executed with a great number of his nobles. The court of Madrid now became jealous of the power of Cortez, who had been, some time before, appointed captain-general and governor of Mexico. Commissioners were sent to inspect and control his measures; his property was seized; his dependants were imprisoned, and he repaired to Spain. He was received with much distinction, and returned to Mexico with an increase of titles, but a diminu

tion of power. A viceroy had charge of the civil administration, and Cortez was intrusted only with the military command and the privilege of prosecuting his discoveries. The division of powers proved a constant source of dissension; and, though he discovered the peninsula of California in 1536, most of his enterprises were frustrated, his life imbittered, and he returned again to Spain, where he was coldly received and neglected. One day, having forced his way through a crowd round the carriage of his king, and put his foot on the step to obtain an audience, Charles coldly inquired who he was. "I am a man," replied Cortez, "who has gained you more provinces than your father left you towns." He passed the remainder of his days in solitude, and died Dec., 1554, near Seville, in the 63d year of his age, leaving a character eminent for bravery and ability, but infamous for perfidy and cruelty.

CORTONA, a fortified town of Tuscany, contains 7 churches (including the cathedral) and 12 convents. It is a place of great antiquity. Population, 4000. It lies 45 miles S. E. Florence.

CORTONA, properly Pietro Berretini, a painter and architect, was born in 1596. He was commonly called Pietro di Cortona, from the name of his native town, Cortona in Tuscany. He acquired the first rudiments of his art under his father, Giovanni, who was also a painter and architect, and afterwards studied with Andreas Commodi and Baccio Ciarpi at Rome. At the commencement of his studies, his awkwardness was so remarkable, that his fellow students called him ass's head. Nevertheless, he devoted himself to the study of the antiques, and of the great masters, Raphael, Caravaggio and Michael Angelo, and unexpectedly made his appearance as an artist, with the Rape of the Sabines. The Birth of Christ, in the church of Our Lady of Loretto, established his reputation. His painting, on the ceiling of the large saloon in the Barberini palace, representing the Triumph of Honor, is a very happy effort. Mengs declares it one of the grandest compositions ever executed by a painter. He afterwards travelled through Lombardy, the Venetian states and Tuscany, where he painted the ceilings of the Palazzo Pitti in Florence, and thence returned to Rome. During this journey, he was constantly employed as a painter and architect. He was subsequently attacked by the gout, and could not, in consequence, ascend the stagings: he therefore employed himself in the execution of easel pictures, which,

procureur to the parliament of Paris, wished to educate him for the law; but an invincible inclination for medical studies led him into a different career, in which he was soon distinguished for his intelligence and his extensive learning. He succeeded Rochefort as physician to the hôpital de la charité, and was the first professor of internal clinics in France. He was chief physician to the first consul (1802), and afterwards to the emperor (to whom he was faithfully attached, but with whom he had not, according to the Mémoire of him by baron Cuvier, any political influence, as some have asserted), professor in the collège de France from 1797, member of the imperial institute, &c. Corvisart's great merit was not overlooked after the restoration. The place of honorary member of the royal academy of medicine was conferred on him just before his death, which happened Sept. 18, 1821. Corvisart felt that the most distinguished practitioner of medicine has not performed his whole duty to his science, unless he leaves some memorial of his experience. He translated some important works, with commentaries, and was the author of several valuable treatises. His two principal works are a Treatise on Diseases of the Heart, and a Commentary on the work of Auenbrugger, a German physician, published in 1763, at Vienna. In 1770, it was translated into French, but so much forgotten, that Corvisart says, "I could have sacrificed Auenbrugger's name to my vanity, but I did not choose to do so: I only wish to revive his beautiful discovery." His place in the French academy of sciences has been filled by M. Magendie, and his chair in the college of France had been occupied by M. Hallé for several years before the time of his death.

CORYBANTES (Curetes, Idai Dactyli, among the Romans, a peculiar order of priests called Galli) are said to have derived their origin from Corybas, son of Cybele and Jasion, who appointed them to perform religious service to his mother, the goddess Cybele, in the island of Crete and in Phrygia. According to much more ancient traditions, they were descendants of Vulcan. The story of their clashing together instruments of forged metal, when Rhea gave them the infant Jupiter, in order to prevent Saturn from hearing his cries, seems to have some connexion with this tradition. According to Apollodorus, the Corybantes were sons of Apollo and Thalia; according to others, of Apollo and Rhetia.

Cos, or Coos; an island in the Ægæan sea (now Stanchio or Stincho), on the coast of Asia Minor, opposite the towns of Halicarnassus and Cnidos (95 square miles, 4000 inhabitants); the land of Apelles and Hippocrates. Here was a celebrated temple of Esculapius. In Cos was manufactured a fine, semi-transparent kind of silk, much valued by the ancients.

COSEL; a small, yet not unimportant fortified town, on the left bank of the Upper Oder, in Upper Silesia (197 houses and 3600 inhabitants); first fortified by Frederic the Great, after the conquest of Silesia. It has been several times besieged in vain.

COSEL, Countess of; one of the many mistresses of the prodigal Augustus II, king of Poland and elector of Saxony. She was the wife of the Saxon minister Hoymb, who, well knowing the king's disposition, kept her far from court; but, on one occasion, when excited by wine, he praised her so much to the king, that the latter ordered her to be brought to Dresden. She was soon divorced from Hoymb, and appeared at court as the countess of Cosel, the mistress of the king. A palace was built for her, still called the Cosel palace, which was preeminent for magnificence and luxury. The furniture alone cost 200,000 Saxon dollars (150,000 Spanish). It must be remembered that the king had no income from Poland; on the contrary, the royal dignity was a source of great expense to the elector; thus the little electorate had to support, unaided, the enormous extravagance of its ruler. For nine years, the countess succeeded in preserving the king's favor, and exercised an arbitrary sway in affairs of government. At last, she fell into disgrace, and was dismissed from the king's presence. She retired into Prussia, and was afterwards arrested at Halle, at the request of Augustus, and carried to Stolpe, in Saxony, where she remained imprisoned 45 years, and died 80 years old. So much power had she over the king, when in favor, that dollars and florins were actually coined, bearing the stamp of the royal arms in conjunction with those of the countess. She is one among many similar instances of the advantages which legitimacy brings in its train, subjecting nations to the control of profligate monarchs, who are governed by equally profligate mistresses.

COSENZA (anciently Cosentia); a city of Naples, capital of Calabria Citra, situated on seven small hills, at the foot of the