Apennines; 145 miles S. E. Naples; lon. 16° 27′ E.; lat. 39° 22′ N.; population, 7989. The metropolitan is the only church within the walls; but there are three parish churches in the faubourgs. There are 12 convents. The environs are beautiful, populous and well cultivated, producing abundance of corn, fruit, oil, wine and silk. This town was anciently the capital of the Brutii, and a place of consequence in the second Punic war. Cosenza has frequently suffered from earthquakes, particularly in the year 1638. COSMETICS (from KOGμew, I ornament, beautify); means for preserving or increasing the beauty of the human body. Every one knows that such means are used by the most savage, as well as the most civilized, nations; that cosmetics have afforded a rich harvest to charlatans; and that it is very difficult to find good ones among the numberless bad ones. a creation than an emanation of the Deity. Plato says the universe is an eternal image of the immutable Idea, or Type, united, from eternity, with changeable matter. The followers of this philosopher both developed and distorted this idea. Ammonius, a disciple of Proclus, taught, in the sixth century, at Alexandria, the coëternity of God and the universe. Modern philosophers, and also ancient ones (e. g., Xenophanes, according to Diogenes Laertius), went further, and taught that the universe is one with the Deity. Parmenides, Melissus, Zeno of Elea, and the Megaric sect, followed this doctrine.-II. The theory which considers the matter of the universe eternal, but not its form, was the prevailing one among the ancients, who, starting from the principle that nothing could be made out of nothing, could not admit the creation of matter, yet did not believe that the COSMO I OF MEDICI. (See Medici.) world had been always in its present state. COSMOGONY (from the Greek Kórpos, the The prior state of the world, subject to world, and yóvos, generation), according to a constant succession of uncertain moveits etymology, should be defined the origin ments, which chance afterwards made of the world itself; but the term has be- regular, they called chaos. The Phonicome, to a great degree, associated with cians, Babylonians, and also Egyptians, the numerous theories of different nations seem to have adhered to this theory. The and individuals respecting this event. ancient poets, who have handed down to Though the origin of the world must us the old mythological traditions, reprenecessarily remain forever concealed from sent the universe as springing from chaos, human eyes, there is, notwithstanding, a without the assistance of the Deity. Hestrong desire in the breasts of mortals to un- siod feigns that Chaos was the parent of veil it; so that we find hypotheses among Erebus and Night, from whose union all nations, respecting the beginning of all sprung the Air (Alone) and the Day ('Huépa). things. We may divide these hypotheses He further relates how the sky and the into three classes:-1. The first represents stars were separated from the earth, &c. the world as eternal, in form as well as The system of atoms is much more fasubstance. 2. The matter of the world is mous. Leucippus and Democritus of eternal, but not its form. 3. The world Abdera were its inventors. The atoms, had a beginning, and shall have an end. or indivisible particles, say they, existed -I. Ocellus Lucanus is one of the most from eternity, moving at hazard, and proancient philosophers who supposed the ducing, by their constant meeting, a vari world to have existed from eternity. ety of substances. After having given Aristotle appears to have embraced the rise to an immense variety of combina same doctrine. His theory is, that not tions, they produced the present organiza only the heaven and earth, but also ani- tion of bodies. This system of cosmogmate and inanimate beings, in general, are ony was that of Epicurus, as described without beginning. His opinion rested by Lucretius. Democritus attributed to on the belief, that the universe was neces- atoms form and size, Epicurus added sarily the eternal effect of a cause equally weight. Many other systems have existeternal, such as the Divine Spirit, which, ed, which must be classed under this being at once power and action, could not division. We only mention that of the remain idle. Yet he admitted, that a spi- Stoics, who admitted two principles, God ritual substance was the cause of the uni- and matter, in the abstract, both corporeal, verse; of its motion and its form. He for they did not admit spiritual beings. says positively, in his Metaphysics, that The first was active, the second passive. God is an intelligent Spirit (os), incorporeal, eternal, immovable, indivisible, and the Mover of all things. According to this great philosopher, the universe is less III. The third theory of cosmogony makes God the Creator of the world out of nothing. This is the doctrine of the Etruscans, Druids, Magi and Bramins. Before idolatry was introduced into China, the people worshipped a Supreme Being, Chang-Ti, the Mover and Regulator of the universe. Anaxagoras was the first among the Greeks, who taught that God created the universe from nothing. The Romans generally adopted this theory, notwithstanding the efforts of Lucretius to establish the doctrine of Epicurus. The beginning of Ovid bears a striking resemblance to the beginning of Genesis. Clement of Alexandria therefore thinks that the Pentateuch was known in Greece and Rome before the time of Christ. It is not necessary, however, to adopt this conclusion, for the two systems of cosmogony might have had a common origin. The Indian cosmogony also bears much resemblance to that of Moses. It is well known to every reader, that the Mosaic cosmogony belongs to the class we are now describing. It is distinguish ed by its great simplicity. The rationalists, as they are called in Germany, regard it as an Asiatic tradition, and not as a revelation. Some of the most important sources of information respecting the different systems of cosmogony, besides the book of Genesis, are the works of Hesiod, Diogenes Laertius, Nonnus of Panopolis, Eusebius, Philo the Jew, Pliny and Diodorus. A very learned and ingenious treatise on the Mosaic history of creation is contained in a work full of learning-Mythologus oder gesammelte Abhandlungen über die Sagen des Alterthums von Philipp Buttmann, vol. i, Berlin, 1828. COSSACKS (Casacks); the tribes who inhabit the southern and eastern parts of Russia, Poland, the Ukraine, &c., guarding the southern and eastern frontier of the Russian empire, and paying no taxes, performing, instead, the duty of soldiers. Nearly all of them belong to the GrecoRussian church. Their internal administration, however, is independent of the Russian government. They form a military democracy. They must be divided into two principal classes, both on account of their descent and their present condition-the Cossacks of Little Russia (Malo-Russia), and those of the Don. Both classes, and especially those of the Don, have collateral branches. From those of the Don, who are the most civilized, are descended the Volgaic, the Terek, the Grebeskoi, the Uralian and Siberian Cossacks. To the other race belong the Zaporogians or Haydamaks, who are the wildest and most unrestrained. Writers are not agreed as to the origin of this VOL. III. 48 people and of their name. Some derive both races from the province of Casachia, so called by Constantine Porphyrogenetes. In the Turkish, cazak signifies a robber; but, in the Tartar language, it signifies a soldier lightly armed, for rapid moticu. Since the Cossacks came from the plains beyond the Volga, they may be the remains of the Tartar hordes who settled there at different times. Some suppose them to be of Russian origin. Their language is properly Russian, although, in consequence of their early wars with the Turks and Poles, they have adopted many words from these people. It is probable that both races of the Cossacks are descended from the united Russian adventurers, who came from the provinces of Novogorod. Their object was to collect booty in the wars and feuds with the Tartars, on the frontiers of the Russian empire. As they were useful in protecting the frontiers, the government granted them great privileges; and their numbers rapidly increased, more especially as grants of land were made them. Thus their power was augmented, and they became, by degrees, better organized and firmly established. Their privileges, however, have been very much limited since the year 1804. In the war of 1538, 3000 Cossacks of the Don made their first campaign with the Russians in Livonia. They then conquered Siberia, repulsed the Tartars from many Russian provinces, and assisted in defeating the Turks. During the frequent rebellions of the Cossacks of the Don (the last of which was conducted by the formidable Pugatscheff), quarrels arose among them, and the great family became divided into several parts. Thus a branch of the great tribe of the Don, consisting of about 7000 men, in order to escape the punishment of their offences, retired, in 1577, to the Kama and to Perm, and afterwards to the Oby. (See Siberia and Stroganoff.) They drove out the Woguls, the Ostiacs and Tartars, who were settled there. Their numbers having been much reduced by these contests with the inhabitants, and their leader being no longer able to maintain his conquest, they placed themselves under the protection of the Russian government, and obtained assistance. This branch of the Cossacks has since spread over all Siberia. The strength of the Cossacks is variously estimated. Archenholz makes the number of warriors 700,000; but not half this number is in actual service, and two thirds of those are employed only in the domestic service, and never enter Europe; so that not many more than 100,000 men but they are tough and well broken, and are at the disposal of the Russian govern- so swift, that, when they do not move in ment, in case of a war in Europe. Dur- compact bodies, and carry little or no baging the seven years' war, the Russian gage, they can travel, without much diffiarmy included but 10,000 Cossacks. Ac- culty, from 50 to 70 miles a day, for sevcording to the regulations of 1804, two out eral days in succession. Each pulk has of three regiments do duty at home, and two or more silken banners, usually the third on the frontiers. But they are all adorned with images of the saints. The Jiable to be called into the field, and they Cossacks fight principally in small bodies, then receive pay and rations from the with which they attack the enemy on all emperor. They form, in general (par- sides, but principally on the flanks and ticularly those of the Don, who are the in the rear, rushing upon them at full most independent), the irregular flying speed, with a dreadful hurrah, and with cavalry of the Russian army, being divid- levelled lances. If they succeed in breaked into separate troops. The Cossacks of ing through the enemy by a bold attack, Little Russia are more disciplined; they they drop their lances, which are dragged may almost be called regular troops. The along by the strap, and, seizing on their Cossacks have no nobility among them. sabres and pistols, do great execution. If All are equal, and all may, without de- they meet with opposition, and find it imgrading themselves, alternately command possible to penetrate, they immediately and obey. Their officers are chosen by retreat, hasten to some appointed place, them from among themselves, only the form anew, and repeat the attack until the commander-in-chief must be approved by enemy is put to flight, when they bring the government. He cannot be displaced destruction on the scattered forces. In except by its consent. The commanders 1570, they built their principal stanitza are always in the pay of the crown, but and rendezvous, called Tscherkask, 70 the common Cossacks receive pay only wersts above Azoph, on some islands in while they are on duty. Their regiments the Don, 1283 miles from Petersburg, (pulks) are from 500 to 3000 strong, ac- now containing 2950 houses and 15,000 cording to the size of the circle, and are inhabitants, the seat of the ataman. It commanded by a chief (hettman, q. v.; in may be called the Tartar Venice, for the their language, ataman). The commander houses rest on high wooden piles, and are of the whole corps is also called hettman. connected with each other by small The officers under the colonel are with bridges. When the river is high, which out rank (with the exception of those of is from April to June, the city appears to some particular regiments, who have an be floating on the water. Their churches equal rank with the officers in the army), are richly adorned with gold and precious and, in case of necessity, may be command- stones. There is a regular theatre here. ed by the inferior officers of the regular There are also many private libraries, and army. Each Cossack is liable to do duty a school where French, German, geomefrom the age of 18 to 50, and is obliged try, history, geography, natural philosoto furnish his own horse, and to be cloth-phy, &c., are taught. A great deal of ed in the Polish or Oriental fashion, although the texture and quality of his garments are left to himself. Their principal weapon is a lance from 10 to 12 feet in length: they have also a sabre, a gun or a pair of pistols, as well as a bow and arrows. The lances, in riding, are carried upright by means of a strap fastened to the foot, the armn, or the pommel of the saddle. Those who use bows carry a quiver over the shoulder. The kantschu, also, which is a thick whip of twisted leather, serves them for a weapon against an unarmed enemy, as well as for the management of their horses. Though little adapted for regular movements, they are very serviceable in attacking bag gage, magazines, and in the pursuit of troops scattered in flight. Their horses are mostly small, and of poor appearance; business is done by the Greeks, Armenians, Jews, &c. As the city is rendered unhealthy by the overflowing of the island on which it stands, they have lately built New Tscherkask, on an arm of the Don, about four miles from the present city, to which all the inhabitants of the old city will remove, so that, perhaps, in 50 years, no vestige of the old town will remain. Cossé, Charles de, more known by the title of marshal de Brissac, was son of René Cossé, who was lord of Brissac in Anjou, and chief falconer of France. He served with success in the Neapolitan and Piedmontese wars, and distinguished himself as colonel in the battle of Perpignan, in 1541. The first noblemen of France, and even the princes, received their military education in his school, while he com manded the French light cavalry. When the emperor Charles V attempted to besiege Landrecy, in 1543, Brissac repulsed him three times, and united himself, in spite of the superior numbers of the enemy, with Francis I, who lay, with his army, near Vitry. This monarch folded him in his arms, allowed him to drink out of his cup, and created him a knight of his order. After other great actions, he rose to the rank of grand master of the artillery of France, and Henry II sent him as ambassador to the emperor, for the purpose of negotiating a peace. Here he proved himself a good diplomatist, and obtained for his services the office of governor of Piedmont, and the baton of marshal of France, in 1550. He afterwards returned to France as governor of Picardy, and rendered that province important services. Brissac was small, but very well made. The ladies called him the handsome Brissac. It is said that the duchess of Valentinois regarded him with particular favor, and that Henry II appointed him lieutenant-general in Italy merely from jealousy. Brissac died at Paris, Dec. 31, 1563. COSTA FURTADO DE MENDOÇA, Hippolyto Joseph da; a Portuguese gentleman, distinguished for his talents, learning and adventures. He was tried and imprisoned at Lisbon, by the inquisition, for the pretended crime of free-masonry. The following are said to have been the circumstances of his escape from captivity:The door of the cell in which Da Costa was confined opening into a hall, which was the centre of the prison, he had opportunities for remarking that the daily labors of his jailors terminated with throwing a bunch of keys on a table where a lamp was left burning. By patience and perseverance, though conscious of liability to espial through apertures in the walls and ceiling of his cell, he succeeded in forming, out of an old pewter plate, a key which would unlock his door. Upon making his final attempt, the bunch of keys proved to be a proper collection for threading the entire labyrinth of the prison, not excepting the outer gate. Besides the keys and lamp, there was a book, containing, among other records, the minutes of his own examinations. This he took with him, and, carefully closing and locking every door after him, he made his way, without interruption, to the outside of the prison walls; and, after remaining six weeks secluded and disguised in the neighborhood, he took his departure from Portugal, and reached England in safety, carrying with him the book and keys of the inquisitors, as trophies of his success. M. da Costa was the proprietor of the Correio Braziliense, a monthly magazine in the Portuguese language, printed in London, and discontinued a short time before his death, which took place in the beginning of 1824. COSTA RICA; the most eastern and most southern province of Guatimala; between lat. 8° 20′ and 11° 27′ N., and lon. 80° 27′ and 85° 49′ W.; bounded N. by Nicaragua, E. by the Spanish Main, S. E. by Veragua, and W. and S. W. by the Pacific ocean; 150 miles in length, and nearly as much in breadth. It is full of deserts and forests, thinly peopled, and illcultivated. A great part of the inhabitants live independent of the Spaniards. The principal commerce consists in cattle, hides, honey and wax. It has ports in each sea. Carthage is the capital. COSTA RICA; a river of Guatimala, which runs into the Escondida, five miles from St. Carlos, in Nicaragua. COSTER, Laurens (called Jansoens, that is, son of John), a wealthy citizen of Haerlem, was born in that city in 1370 or 1371. He was a member of the chief council in 1418, and by turns performed the duties of a judge and a treasurer. In 1421, or, according to some, in 1399, he was appointed to the office of sacristan (Koster) of the parochial church at Haerlem, and continued in this station; and from this office, which, at that time, was very honorable, he derived his surname. He died, probably, of the contagious disease which raged, in the latter part of 1439, in Haerlem. This is all that the contemporary city records have preserved of his history. More than a hundred years after his death, in the middle of the 16th century, traces of a tradition appeared, which assigned to the city of Haerlem the invention of the art of printing. At this time, Hadrian Junius produced (in a work entitled Batavia, written between 1562 and 1571, but not published till 1588, after his death), from the verbal information of some aged people, who, again, derived their knowledge from others, a complete history of the invention of the art of printing, in which Coster acted the chief part. During his walks in a wood near Haerlem (as Junius relates), he carved letters, at first for his amusement, in the bark of beech-trees. He persevered in these experiments, till he had finished entire lines, and finally proceeded so far as to cut out whole pages on the sides of boards. With blocks of this sort, he effected the impression of the Spegel onzer Behoudenisse. After this, he improved his mode of printing by casting lead or pewter types. But a person by the name of John, whom he had employed as an assistant, stole his printing apparatus one Christmas night, and fled with it first to Amsterdam, and then to Cologne and Mentz, at which last place this theft cccasioned the general diffusion of the art invented by Coster. In Holland, the people are so firmly convinced of the truth of this story, that a statue in honor of Coster was erected in 1622. His house, which fell down in 1818 through age, was shown with the greatest respect; and, in 1740, the jubilee of his invention of the art of printing was celebrated. This celebration was repeated in 1823, the justice of the claim of the Dutch being considered to be established by Meerman's Origines Typographica (1765), and Koning's Verhandeling over het Oorsprong der Bockdrukkunst (1816). The examination of the subject, in the last essay in the Hermes, by Ebert (No. xx), leads us to this result; that Coster, at a time at least as early as that of the invention of the art by the Germans, employed himself in experiments, the design and result of which was the invention of the art of printing. (See Ebert's article Buchdruckerkunst in the Encyclopædia by Ersch and Gruber.) COSTUME, in the fine arts; the observance of propriety in regard to the person or thing represented, so that the scene of action, the habits, arms, proportions, &c., are properly imitated. The peculiarities of form, physiognomy, complexion; the dress, omaments, habitations, furniture, arms, &c., should all be conformable to the period and country in which the scene is laid. The rules of costume would be violated by the introduction of a palmgrove and a tiger in a scene in Russia, by the representation of American Indians in turbans, or of Romans with cannons at the siege of Carthage, or an inhabitant of the East seated at table with a knife and fork. That the ancient painters, and even celebrated masters of the modern European schools, are often chargeable with deviations from propriety in regard to costume, is not to be denied; but nowhere have they been so glaring as on the stage, where Greek, Turkish and Peruvian princes used to make their appearance in long velvet mantles, embroidered with gold; Merope and Cleopatra were equipped in hooppetticoats, Medea and Phaedra in French head-dresses; peasant-girls were dressed out in whale-bone, and heroes emerged from the battle in stiff coats, not a fold of which was disordered. Le Kain and mademoiselle Clairon, it is said, were the first who introduced propriety of costume on the stage, under the patronage of the count de Lauraguais; but they excluded only the grosser absurdities: Scythians and Sarmatians were clothed in tiger-skins, Asiatics in the Turkish dress; but the old costume was retained in other respects. The scenery of the stage was as incongruous as the dresses. It is not long since Semiramis issued from a palace adorned with Corinthian columns, and entered a garden in which a whole American Flora was blooming; or perhaps she was seated on a throne, overshadowed with a canopy à la Polonaise. Those by whom she was surrounded were dressed in the Turkish style; while a master of horse, in the costune of the age of chivalry, offered her his hand. In Germany, the stage, at that time, was no better in this respect. It is not very long since the companions of Theseus made their appearance there with large perukes; and, in the Clemenza di Tito, Roman soldiers marched on the stage with stiff boots, and stiffer queues. The Germans, however, first made a thorough reform in these absurdities, and the national, now royal, theatre, in Berlin, in point of scenery and costume, is at present the most correct in the world. In France, Talma reformed the Parisian stage. What he did in this respect for the drama, David (who had, however, a predecessor in Vien) effected for painting, and his school is entitled to the honor of having strictly observed propriety of costume. The question, To what extent should truth be sacrificed to beauty? is answered in the best manner by an article on the subject of dramatic representation, in Müllner's Almanac for Private Theatres (Almanach für Privatbúhnen, in two volumes, 1818). There, poetical correctness is distinguished from historical, and the cases are pointed out, in which the latter must yield to the former, partly on account of the harmony that must necessarily exist between the external appearances and the spirit of poetry, and partly for the sake of intelligibleness, and avoiding what would be offensive to the less informed spectators. That art may be permitted to idealize costume as wel! as language, cannot be denied. No perfect work on costume has as yet appeared. Dandré Bardon, in his Costumes of the most Ancient Nations, did not confine himself to the true sources of information. The Traité des Costumes of Lenz is a very |