mental law of the German empire. (See Bull.) He thus acquired some claims to the public gratitude; but these were soon effaced by the general indignation, excited by the proposal made, with his consent, by the papal nuncio, to introduce a tax, equal to the tithe of all ecclesiastical revenues, for the benefit of the holy see. All the members of the diet opposed it; and Charles, in his anxiety to conciliate the princes of the empire, announced that he would propose to the assembly a reform of the German clergy. The pope, enraged at this proposal of the emperor, exhorted the electors to depose him. Charles immediately relapsed into his accustomed submissiveness, and not only abandoned all his reforms, but even confirmed, in 1359, all the privileges of the clergy, all their present and future possessions, and made them independent of the secular power. Such vacillating conduct subjected him to the contempt of both parties, of which he received a proof before the close of the same diet, which was held at Mentz. Several princes had, by degrees, obtained possession of many territories, formerly fiefs of the empire. Charles attempted to reunite them with the empire; but the dissatisfaction which was manifested at the attempt, frustrated this plan of the weak emperor, who indemnified himself by selling to the king of Poland the rights of sovereignty, which had been hitherto exercised by the German emperors, over some of his provinces. It may be easily supposed that, under such an emperor, Germany did not enjoy internal tranquillity. Bands of robbers plundered the country in all quarters. The emperor marched against them without accomplishing any thing, and, finally, left the princes and cities to protect themselves by mutual alliances, as well as they were able. The state of Italy was no less melancholy. Tuscany was suffering the evils of anarchy; Lombardy was distracted by civil wars, and the Visconti had made themselves masters of the Milanese. The emperor, true to his principle of sanctioning power wherever found, appointed these usurpers his vicars-general in Lombardy. Imboldened by this, Barnabas Visconti threatened to subject all Italy to his yoke. Pope Urban V sent an invitation to Charles to concert measures of resistance with him, hastened from Avignon to Rome, concluded several alliances, levied troops, and waited for the emperor, who actually appeared with a considerable force; so that Italy, for a short time, deemed itself safe. Charles took advantage of the pope's situation to persuade him to

at war with France, made use of the offer of the electors so far only as to secure the neutrality of the king of Bohemia, and rejected the proffered crown. Equally fruitless was the choice of Frederic the Severe, landgrave of Meissen; upon which the enemies of Charles elected the virtuous and heroic count Günther of Schwarzburg, whom Charles, as some writers, though without sufficient authority, assert, put out of his way by poison. Those who surrounded Günther in his last moments extorted from him an abdication, for which they were munificently paid by Charles, who was as liberal, when the gratification of his ambition was concerned, as he was unjust and rapacious in satisfying his avarice. Charles now used every effort to appease his enemies. He married the daughter of the elector of the palatinate, gave the elector of Brandenburg Tyrol as a fief, and was unanimously elected emperor, and consecrated at Aixla-Chapelle. But no sooner was he crowned, than he took possession of the imperial insignia, and, contrary to his express promise, conveyed them to Bohemia. He persuaded his father-in-law, the elector of the palatinate, to subject a great portion of the upper palatinate to the feudal court of Bohemia. This tribunal, which he regarded as the most proper instrument for the subjugation of Germany, was enlarged in its jurisdiction more and more. In 1354, the emperor went to Italy, to be crowned by the pope; but this favor he purchased on terms which made him an object of ridicule and contempt. He engaged to appear without any armed force. Having been consecrated at Milan king of Italy, he confirmed the Visconti in the possession of all the usurpations of which he had promised to deprive them. He also annulled all the acts of his grandfather, Henry VII, against Florence, and, by a treaty concluded at Padua, resigned the latter city, with Verona and Vicenza, to Venice. Trafficking thus with his rights, he went to Rome, and was crowned by a delegate of the pope, but did not dare to remain there a single day. He refused the request of some Romans, to claim the city, as belonging to him, in the name of the empire, and, in a treaty, renounced all sovereignty over Rome, the States of the Church, Ferrara, Naples, Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica, and even took an oath not to return to Italy without the consent of the pope. Despised by the Guelphs, detested by the Ghibellines, Charles returned to Germany, where he issued the celebrated golden bull, which, till recently, continued a funda

crown his fourth wife, Elizabeth of Pomerania, at Rome, and, in return, entered into the most positive engagements with Urban. Notwithstanding this, he again engaged in negotiations with the Visconti, and sold them a formal confirmation of all their usurpations. In like manner, during his residence in Italy, he sold states and cities to the highest bidder, or, if they themselves offered most, made them independent republics. With great treasures, but despised by his enemies, and hated by his allies, he returned to Germany. Gregory XI, having given his consent that his son Wenceslaus should be elected king of the Romans, he employed his illgotten wealth to purchase the votes of the electors, who were irritated at the conduct of the pope, and distributed among them, in addition, the domains of the empire on the Rhine, and several free imperial cities. Thus he attained his object. To maintain their rights against the arbitrary measures of the emperor, the imperial cities in Suabia formed the (so called) Suabian league, which Charles opposed in vain. To the pope he manifested his gratitude by extending the privileges of the clergy. The empire was nearly ruined, when Charles died at Prague, in 1378. To his eldest son, Wenceslaus, he left Bohemia and Silesia; to the second, Sigismund, the electorate of Brandenburg; and to the third, Lusatia. His reign is remarkable for the improvement and prosperity of Bohemia; for the founding of the universities of Prague and Vienna; for a terrible persecution of the Jews, and as the period when the sale of letters of nobility commenced in Germany. The history of this prince affords a fine illustration of the soundness of the theory of legitimacy, many of his usurpations having become a part of the "divine right" of succeeding rulers.

CHARLES V, emperor of Germany and king of Spain (in the latter capacity, he is called Charles I), the eldest son of Philip, arch-duke of Austria, and of Joanna, the daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, was born at Ghent, Feb. 24, 1500. Philip was the son of the emperor Maximilian and Mary, daughter of Charles the Bold, last duke of Burgundy. Charles's birth gave him claims to the fairest countries of Europe. He was educated in the Netherlands, under the care of William of Croy, lord of Chièvres. Charles preferred military exercises to study. Chièvres, without diverting him from his favorite

This was the title given to the person elected during the lifetime of the emperor, to succeed him after his death.

occupations, taught him history, formed him for affairs of state, and implanted in him that gravity which he retained through life. After the death of Ferdinand, his grandfather, in 1516, Charles assumed the title of king of Spain. The management of this kingdom was intrusted to the celebrated cardinal Ximenes, who, by his genius, prepared the way for the glorious reign of Charles V. In 1519, Maximilian likewise died, and Charles was now elected emperor. He left Spain to take possession of his new dignity, for which he had to contend with Francis I, king of France. His coronation took place at Aix-la-Chapelle, with extraordinary splendor. The elective capitulation (Wahlcapitulation, see Capitulation), signed by his ambassadors, he ratified without hesitation. The chief features of it were the reservations made by the electors, securing themselves against foreign influence. The emperor was not to begin any war without their consent; no language but the German or Latin was to be used in the administration of the affairs of the empire; and the rich commercial confederacies of merchants, whose wealth, as the instrument expressed it, had enabled them to act according to their own will, were to be abolished by the emperor, assisted by the advice of the members of the empire. The association aimed at was the powerful Hanseatic league, whose influence had excited the electors' jealousy. The progress of the reformation in Germany demanded the care of the new emperor, who held a diet at Worms. Luther, who appeared at this diet, with a safe conduct from Charles, defended his cause with energy and boldness. The emperor kept silent; but, after Luther's departure, a severe edict appeared against him, in the name of Charles, who thought it for his advantage to show himself the defender of the Roman church. The claims which Francis I had advanced to the empire, and those which he still preferred to Italy, the Netherlands and Navarre, made war appear inevitable. Charles prepared for it by an alliance with the pope. Hostilities broke out in 1521. The French, victorious beyond the Pyrenees, were unsuccessful in the Netherlands. A congress held at Calais only increased the irritation, and gave Henry VIII, king of England, a pretext for declaring himself for Charles, whose party daily acquired strength. A serious insurrection in Spain was happily subdued. The defeat of Bonnivet, in the ble of Bourbon, indemnified Charles V for Milanese, and the accession of the constahis want of success in Provence. Francis,

who was besieging Pavia, was defeated by the imperial forces, and taken prisoner, in 1525. On this occasion, Charles feigned the moderation of a Christian hero. Without improving his advantages, he remained inactive in Spain. But he thought to attain his object in another way. He proposed to Francis I such hard conditions, that this unfortunate prince swore that he would die in captivity, rather than accede to them. Meanwhile, he was carried to Spain, and treated with respect. Charles, however, did not visit him, until he was informed that the life of his prisoner was in danger. The interview was brief. Charles promised his captive a speedy release. The treaty of Madrid was finally concluded in January, 1526. The power of Charles now became a source of uneasiness to most other princes of Europe. Pope Clement VII placed himself at the head of a league of the principal states of Italy against the emperor; but their ill-directed efforts were productive of new misfortunes. Rome was taken by storm by the troops of the constable, sacked, and the pope himself made prisoner. Charles V publicly disavowed the proceedings of the constable, went into mourning with his court, and carried his hypocrisy so far as to order prayers for the deliverance of the pope. On restoring the holy father to liberty, he demanded a ransom of 400,000 crowns of gold, but was satisfied with a quarter of that sum. He also released, for 2,000,000, the French princes, who had been given to him as hostages. Henry VIII of England now allied himself with the French monarch against Charles, who accused Francis of having broken his word, given on the honor of a gentleman. The quarrel brought on a challenge to a duel, which did not, however, take place. The war was terminated in 1529, by the treaty of Cambray, of which the conditions were favorable to the emperor. Charles soon after left Spain, and was crowned in Bologna as king of Lombardy and Roman emperor. On the occasion of this solemnity, the proud Charles kissed the feet of the same pope who had been his prisoner. In 1530, he seemed desirous, at the diet of Augsburg, to reconcile the various parties; but, not succeeding, he issued a decree against the Protestants, which they met by the Smalcaldic league. He also published, in 1532, a law of criminal procedure. (See Carolina.) Notwithstanding his undertakings in favor of the Catholic religion, Charles always showed himself moderate towards the Protestants, whenever his interest left room for toleration.

Nor did the Protestant princes hesitate to furnish their contingents, when he was assembling an army against the Turks. Having compelled Solyman to retreat, he undertook, in 1535, an expedition against Tunis, reinstated the dey, and released 20,000 Christian slaves. This success added to his character somewhat of the chivalric, which gave him still more influence in Christendom, and promoted his political projects. He manifested this chivalrous spirit still more in a speech, which he made at Rome, before the pope and cardinals, when hostilities were renewed in Italy against France. In this he proposed a duel, in which the duchy of Burgundy on the one part, and the duchy of Milan on the other, were to be the prize; but, on the following day, he expressed himself in such a manner to the French ambassador, that it was suspected that his challenge was only a figure of speech. His invasions of Provence and Picardy met with small success. A truce was concluded in 1537, and, in 1538, prolonged for 10 years. The two monarchs had an interview, in which they spoke only of mutual respect and esteem. Soon after, Charles, who was in Spain, where he had annihilated the old constitution of the cortes, wished to pass through France to the Netherlands. He spent six days with Francis I in Paris, where the two princes appeared together in all public places like brothers. Courtiers were not wanting, who advised the king of France to detain his guest, until he had annulled the treaty of Madrid; but Francis was satisfied with promises, which Charles very soon forgot. Having quelled the disturbances in the Netherlands, Charles resolved, in 1541, to crown his reputation by the conquest of Algiers. Against Doria's advice, he embarked in the stormy season, and lost a part of his fleet and army, without gaining any advantage. After his return, his refusal to invest the king of France with the territory of Milan involved him in a new war, in which the king of England embraced his part. The army of Charles was defeated at Cerisola; but, on the other hand, he penetrated to the heart of Champagne. The disturbances caused in Germany by the reformation induced the emperor to accede to the peace of Crespy, in 1545. The policy of Charles was to reconcile the two parties, and, towards the Protestants, he employed alternately threats and promises. After some show of negotiation, the Protestant princes raised the standard of war. The emperor declared, in 1546, the heads of the league

under the ban of the empire, excited divisions among the confederates, collected an army in haste, and obtained several advantages over his enemies. John Frederic, the elector of Saxony, was taken prisoner in the battle of Mühlberg, in 1547. Charles received him sternly, and gave him over to a court-martial, consisting of Italians and Spaniards, under the presidency of Alva, which condemned him to death. The elector saved his life only by renouncing his electorate and his hereditary estates; but he remained a prisoner. Meanwhile, the emperor appeared somewhat more moderately inclined towards the vanquished party. On coming to Wittenberg, he expressed surprise that the exercise of the Lutheran worship had been discontinued. He visited the grave of Luther, and said, "I do not war with the dead: let him rest in peace: he is already before his Judge." The landgrave of Hesse Cassel, one of the heads of the Protestants, was compelled to sue for mercy: notwithstanding his promise, Charles deprived him of his freedom. After having dissolved the league of Smalcalden, the emperor again occupied himself with the plan of uniting all religious parties, and, for this purpose, issued the Interim (q. v.), so called, which was as fruitless as the measures proposed by him at the diet of Augsburg. Neither was he successful in securing the imperial crown to his son. Discord still agitated public sentiment, and a new war broke out against him. Maurice of Saxony, whom he had invested with the electoral dignity, formed a league, which was joined by Henry II, king of France, the successor of Francis. The preparations had been made with the greatest secrecy. Charles was at Inspruck, superintending the deliberations of the council of Trent, and meditating great plans against France and Turkey. He was expecting the aid of Maurice, when this prince threw off the mask, appeared suddenly at the head of an army, and invaded the Tyrol in 1552, while Henry II entered Lorraine. Charles was near being surprised in Inspruck, in the middle of a stormy night. Tormented by the gout, he escaped alone, in a litter, by difficult roads. Maurice abandoned the imperial castle to plunder, the council of Trent was dissolved, and the Protestants dictated the conditions of the treaty of Passau, in 1552. Charles was not more successful in Lorraine. He was unable to recover Metz, defended by the duke of Guise. In Italy, he lost Sienna, by a revolt. He withdrew to Brussels, where, hard pressed

by his enemies, and suffering from the gout, he became gloomy and dejected, and, for several months, concealed himself from the sight of every one, so that the report of his death was spread through Europe. His last exertions were directed against France, which constantly repelled his assaults. The diet of Augsburg, in 1555, confirmed the treaty of Passau, and gave the Protestants equal rights with the Catholics. Charles saw all his plans frustrated, and the number of his enemies increasing. He resolved to transfer his hereditary states to his son Philip. Having convened the estates of the Low Countries at Louvain, in 1555, he explained to them the reasons of his resolution, asserted that he had sacrificed himself for the interests of religion and of his subjects, but that his strength was inadequate to further exertion, and that he should devote to God the remainder of his days. He then turned to Philip, who had thrown himself on his knees, and kissed the hand of his father; reminded him of his duties, and made him swear to labor incessantly for the good of the people. He then gave him his blessing, embraced him, and sunk back exhausted on his chair. At that time, Charles conferred on Philip the sovereignty of the Netherlands alone. Jan. 15, 1556, he con-i ferred upon him, in like manner, the Spanish throne, reserving for himself merely a pension of 100,000 ducats. The remaining time that he spent in the Netherlands he employed in reconciling his son with France, and effected the conclusion of a truce. Having made an unsuccessful_attempt to induce his brother Ferdinand to transfer the imperial crown to the head of his son, he sent a solemn embassy to Germany, to announce to the electors his abdication; after which he embarked at Zealand, and landed on the coast of Biscay. It is said that he threw himself on the earth on landing, kissed it, and exclaimed, "Naked I left the womb of my mother, and naked I return to thee, thou common mother of mankind." He had selected for his residence the monastery of St. Justus, near Placensia, in Estremadura, and here he exchanged sovereignty, dominion and pomp for the quiet and solitude of a cloister. His amusements were confined to short rides, to the cultivation of a garden, and to mechanical labors. It is said that he made wooden clocks, and, being unable to make two clocks go exactly alike, was reminded of the folly of his efforts to bring a number of men to the same sentiments. He attended religious services twice every day, read books of devotion, and, by de

grees, fell into such dejection, that his faculties seemed to suffer from it. He renounced the most innocent pleasures, and observed the rules of the monastic life in all their rigor. In order to perform án extraordinary act of piety, he resolved to celebrate his own obsequies. Wrapped in a shroud, and surrounded by his retinue, he laid himself in a coffin, which was placed in the middle of the church. The funeral service was performed, and the monarch mingled his voice with those of the clergy, who prayed for him. After the last sprinkling, all withdrew, and the doors were closed. He remained some time in the coffin, then rose, threw himself before the altar, and returned to his cell, where he spent the night in deep meditation. This ceremony hastened his death. He was attacked by a fever, of which he died, at the age of 59 years, Sept. 21, 1558.Charles had a noble air, and refined manners. He spoke little, and smiled seldom. Firm of purpose; slow to decide; prompt to execute; equally rich in resources, and sagacious in the choice of them; gifted with a cool judgment, and always master of himself, he steadily pursued his purposes, and easily triumphed over obstacles. Circumstances developed his genius, and made him great. Although his want of faith was notorious, he imposed, by the semblance of magnanimity and sincerity, even on those who had already experienced his perfidy. An acute judge of men, he knew how to use them for his purposes. It is improbable that it was his intention to establish a universal monarchy. In misfortune he appears greater than in prosperity. He protected and encouraged the arts and sciences, and is said to have picked up a brush, which had fallen from the hand of Titian, with the words, "Titian is worthy of being served by an emperor." By his wife Eleonora, daughter of Emanuel, king of Portugal, he had one son, afterwards Philip II, and two daughters. He had, also, several natural children.Charles V is one of the most remarkable characters in history. He exhibited no talents in his youth, and, in after life, when his armies in Italy were winning battle after battle, he remained quietly in Spain, apparently not much interested in these victories; but, even in his early youth, his motto was, not yet (nondum). It was not till his 30th year, that he showed himself active and independent; but, from this time to his abdication, he was, throughout, a monarch. No minister had a marked influence over him. He was indefatigable in business, weighing the reasons on both

sides of every case with great minuteness; very slow in deciding; unchangeable of purpose; so that he once said to a courtier, who praised him for his perseverance and firmness, that he sometimes insisted upon things not right. Granvella was the only person who possessed his entire confidence. (See Granvella.) Wherever he was, he imitated the customs of the country, and won the favor of every people except the Germans. Among them he was not liked, owing to his want of the frankness which they expected in their emperor. Charles was slow in punishing, as well as in rewarding; but, when he did punish, it was with severity; when he rewarded, it was with munificence. His health early declined. In his 40th year, he felt himself weak. His sufferings from the gout were extreme: he could not even open a letter without pain. After his mother's death, he thought sometimes that he heard her voice, calling to him to follow her. It is said that, when arming for battle, he trembled; but, in the heat of the engagement, was as cool as if it were impossible for an emperor to be killed. We know of no work, in which the character of Charles has been delineated with more truth than in the valuable production of Mr. Ranke, professor in the university of Berlin,-The Princes and Nations of the South of Europe in the sixteenth and seventeenth Centuries (Hamburg, 1827). Among the numerous sources of the history of Charles V, we would mention Hormayr's Aus durchaus ungedruckten Papieren, in his Archiv. für Geogr. Historie, &c. (Jahrg. 1810). The work of Robertson is too well known to need recommendation.

CHARLES VI, the second son of the emperor Leopold I, was born Oct. 1, 1685. His father destined him for the Spanish throne. The last prince of the house of Hapsburg, Charles II, disregarding the house of Austria, whose right to the Spanish throne was undoubted, according to the law of inheritance by descent, had, by his will, made Philip, duke of Anjou, second grandson of Louis XIV, heir of the Spanish monarchy, and, after the death of Charles II, Nov. 1, 1700, Philip had taken possession of the vacant kingdom. England and Holland united against him, and this alliance was soon joined by the German empire, Portugal and Savoy. Charles was proclaimed king of Spain, at Vienna, in 1703, and proceeded, by way of Holland, to England, from whence, in January, 1704, he set sail, with 12,000 men, for Spain, which was almost wholly