After the return from the captivity, Nehemiah, Ezra, and other pious and liberal persons, to the utmost of their ability, ransomed from slavery such of their poor brethren as had been sold among the heathen; but there were, among the wealthy and noble of the Jews, others of a different spirit. In a time of general distress they took advantage of the necessities of their brethren, and cruelly oppressed them; not only compelling them to mortgage their lands, vineyards, and houses, but, in direct violation of the Divine law, selling their sons and daughters for bond-slaves, in payment for the assistance they had been compelled to solicit, in order to obtain the necessaries of life. Nehemiah forcibly expostulated against their extortion and oppression, and prevailed upon them to liberate the enslaved children, and to make a solemn engagement against usury and oppression, the rich consenting to assist the poor in time of distress, and to wait for payment in better times. In later ages there have been too many ready to follow the example of oppression and cruelty; they have been careless of the welfare, and callous to the miseries, of their fellow-creatures, and have usurped authority over them as bond-slaves, especially as their own wealth, power, and prosperity increased. But how few have followed the noble example of ` penitence and reformation, in yielding to the force of principle and conscience, and permitting the oppressed to go free. There does not appear to be any other distinct reference to slavery than those which have been already referred to, except that in the prophetical description of the destruction of Babylon (generally supposed to signify anti-christian Rome). Among the various articles of her

merchandize, which will have for ever ceased, we find mentioned, "slaves, and the souls of men," Rev. xviii. 13. The manner in which this is predicted, corroborates the general observation, that luxury and oppression go hand in hand, and almost invariably announce the approaching ruin of a state. It was so with ancient Rome; so it is predicted of modern Rome. Happy is it for Britain that she has at length been aroused to discern her duty and her interest, and voluntarily to free herself from the guilt of oppression, which otherwise might soon have precipitated her to ruin.

SECT. IX.-SLAVERY IN EUROPE.

This section will consist chiefly in a description of the feudal slavery,* which prevailed throughout Europe during the middle ages, and some traces of which are to be found in most countries even to the present day. The origin of this system appears to have arisen in the conquest of lands by

* It may be interesting to mention the supposed origin of the words slave and slavery, for, perhaps, no word has travelled to a sense so perfectly opposite to its original meaning. It was a national appellation, signifying glory; in this sense it is still used in the Russian language, “Slava Russia," i. e., Glory of Russia. But from the Sclavonian or Slavonian nation, who had adopted this proud sense of the term, it was transferred to the servitude of a conquered people. Follow me,' ,” said one of the ambitious leaders of an invading army, "and I will lead you into a province where you may acquire gold, silver, slaves, cattle, and precious apparel, to the full extent of your wishes; I give you the people and their wealth as your prey, and you may transport them, at pleasure, into your own country.” Such are the inducements to aggressive war!

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foreign powers. Two great revolutions of this kind influenced the circumstances and manners of all the nations of Europe. The first was occasioned by the progress of the Roman power, and the latter by its subversion. The Alps, a vast range of mountains, which separate Italy from France, Switzerland, and Germany, seemed the natural boundary to the Roman empire; but a spirit of conquest led the armies of Rome to cross this barrier, and invade the countries of the barbarians, as they denominated them. The people defended their possessions with great courage, and often, when partially subdued, rallied again, and, animated by the love of liberty, strove to repel the ambitious invaders of their rights. During these long and fierce struggles for dominion or independence, the several countries of Europe were successively laid waste; a great part of the inhabitants perished in the field, many were carried into slavery, and the feeble remnant, incapable of farther resistance, submitted to the Roman power. The Romans having thus conquered Europe, set themselves to civilize it. They appointed governors to the conquered provinces, rebuilt the ancient cities, and encouraged the formation of new towns, and instructed the inhabitants in the arts and sciences. All this, however, was but a poor compensation for the loss of liberty. The people were disarmed by their conquerors, and overawed by the presence of armies, placed among them to restrain any attempts to regain their independence. They were impoverished by heavy taxes, and plundered by rapacious governors. The most able and enterprising of their citizens resorted to Rome, the capital of the empire, in quest of preferment or of

riches. Those who remained under their depressing circumstances, lost all spirit, energy, and independence; accustomed to look up to a superior, and tamely to receive all his commands, in time they lost, not only the habit, but the capacity, of deciding for themselves, or of acting from the impulses of their own minds. Such a tendency has oppression to degrade and debase the human mind! This state of things could not, however, last long. The Roman empire became like an overgrown establishment, committed to the management of mercenaries, whose only aim was to enrich themselves, while they defrauded those above, and oppressed those beneath them. It was constantly liable to internal commotions, and exposed to assaults from without; for however wide the empire of oppression may extend, unless it comprehend the globe, it is not beyond the reach of assault. There were some parts of Germany, which the Roman arms had not penetrated, inhabited by fierce adventurous tribes. A great part, also, of the North of Europe, and the North-west of Asia, had also remained unexplored. The wild barbarians of these countries, at first attracted only by desire of plunder, made short incursions into the Roman provinces, and returned; but success emboldened enterprize. The spoil they acquired, and the accounts they brought of the luxuries and comforts possessed by civilized nations, in more cultivated lands, or more genial climates, excited new adventurers, and it seemed as if new nations arose, or issued from unknown regions, to take vengeance on the Romans, for the calamities which they had inflicted on mankind. Immense swarms of barbarians continually poured upon the Roman pro

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vinces. The jealousy of the Romans had deprived the natives of the use of arms; and being already oppressed, they had neither spirit nor inclination to resist their invaders, from whom they had little to fear, because their condition could hardly be rendered more unhappy. The barbarians pushed their conquests over every part of the Roman empire, and completely subverted the power and policy of Rome; so that, in about two centuries from their first irruption, the whole empire was divided among the various tribes of barbarous conquerors; the ancient inhabitants almost exterminated, and in every part new forms of government, new laws, customs, languages, modes of dress, and even names of men and countries, were introduced. The lands and other properties were divided among the conquerors, in proportions according to the rank they had held in the victorious army, and with an engagement to assist each other in defence of their property, and opposition against a common enemy. These were called freemen, and they alone were permitted to take arms, so that the names of a soldier and a freeman were synonymous. The few remaining inhabitants of each land were placed in a state of vassalage under their conquerors, probably alloted in some such proportion as the lands and other spoil. This new division of property, together with the maxims and manners to which it gave rise, introduced a species of government before unknown, distinguished as the feudal system. It prevailed towards the close of the sixth century, and continued during what are denominated the dark ages, comprehending part of the eleventh century. About that period the crusades were undertaken—a foolish and superstitious