the organ by which communion is attained is faith
he is presented to all, but received only by believers,
The mere symbolical view depreciates the sign too
much, and separates it from the sacrament; but by
the other view the sign is exalted too much, and there-
by the nature of the mystery itself is obscured." (3)
Calvin's views on Grace and Predestination were so
strongly pronounced that his name is now used to des-
ignate an entire system. He maintained the "doc-
trine of absolute predestination, which in him was
connected with a one-sided tendency of Christian feel-
ing and a rigid logical consequence.* Like Zuingle,
he regarded prescience and predestination as of equal
extent, and even established the former by the latter;
God in no other way foresees the future but as he has
decreed. Hence Calvin allowed no contingency even
in the fall; he says, How could God, who effects all
things, have formed the noblest of his creatures for
an uncertain end? What then would become of his
omnipotence? The Infralapsarians must still allow
such a predestination in the case of Adam's descend-
ants. It cannot have been in a natural way that all
lost salvation through the guilt of one. Yet he him-
self feels shocked at the thought; decretum quidem
horribile fateor,† he says. Consequently, God created
the greatest part of mankind in order to glorify him-
self in them by his punitive justice, and the smaller
by the revelation of his love. His opponents might
give a reason why God, who could have made them
dogs, created them in his own image. Ought irra-
tional brutes also to argue with God? All doubts
may be silenced by the thought that God's will is the
highest law and cause. Yet he did not rest here.
The idea of an absolute omnipotence of God, not con-
ditioned by holiness, he looked upon as profane, and
appealed to the incomprehensibility of this mystery.
It is to be acknowledged that Calvin sought to evade
the practically injurious consequences of the doctrine
of absolute predestination, and especially exalted the
revealed grace of God in the work of redemption.
'Men ought to keep to the Word of God alone; and,
instead of inquiring respecting their own election, look
to Christ, and seek in him God's fatherly grace.' Cal-
vin labored very much to procure the universal ac-
knowledgment of this doctrine in Switzerland, but
met with serious opposition, among others, from the
learned Sebastian Castalio (q. v.). In Geneva Cal-
vin at last obtained the victory, and then soon came
to an understanding respecting it with other Swiss
theologians. He attempted, but in vain, to get Me-

elect of God, to whom even the dead belong." Hence he distinguishes the idea of the outward Church as the peculiar Christian community through which alone we can obtain entrance to eternal life; out of its pale there is no forgiveness of sins, no salvation. The marks of this Church are, that it publishes the Word of God in its purity, and administers the sacraments purely according to their institution. The universal Church is so called inasmuch as it includes believers of all nations. Here the important point is not agreement in all things, but only in essential doctrines (Instit. lib. iv). (2) As to the Sacraments Calvin occupied a middle position. "On the one hand he protested against the notion of a magical influence, and on the other he held firmly to the objective. The sacraments are not mere signs, but signs instituted by God, which notify to men the Divine promise. They are the outward symbols by which God seals the promises of his grace to our conscience; they attest the weakness of our faith, and at the same time our love to Him. The sacraments effect this, not by any secret magical power, but because they are instituted for this end by the Lord; and they can only attain it when the inward agency of the Holy Spirit is added, whereby alone the sacraments find their way to the heart; they are therefore efficacious only for the predestinated." “Baptism is a seal of a covenant. Christ blessed children, commended them to their heavenly Father, and said that of such was the kingdom of heaven. If children ought to be brought to Christ, why should they not receive the symbol of communion with Christ? Also in the New Testament mention is made of the haptism of whole families, and the early use of infant baptism allows the conclusion that it had come down from the time of the apostles. Infant baptism is also important for the parents, as a seal of the Divine promise which is continued from them to their children; another reason is, that by baptism children are incorporated in the Church, and are so much the more commended to the other members. He believed in a certain influence in infant baptism, and answers the objection to it by saying that, although we cannot understand this effect, it does not follow that it does not take place. He appealed to the fact that John was filled with the Holy Spirit from his birth, and Christ from the beginning with the Divine nature. From his humanity the principle of sanctification must overflow to men, and this would hold good of children" (Institastes, bk. iv, ch. xvi). On the doctrine of the Lord's Supper, "he opposed those who explained the words eating the flesh of Christ and drinking his blood,' only of faith in Christ, and the right knowledge of him (Institutes, bk. iv, ch. xvii). Whoever received the Supper in faith was truly and perfectly a partaker of Christ. This communion was not merely a communion of spirit; the body of Christ, by its connection with the Divine nature, received a fulness of life which + III, 23, 7.-Iterum quæro, unde factum est, ut tot gentes, flowed over to believers. Calvin therefore admitted una cum liberis eorum infantibus æternæ mo ti involveret something supernatural, but thought that the event lapsus Adæ absque remedio, nisi quia Deo ita verum est? Hic obmutescere oportet tam dicaces alloqui linguas. Decretum took place, not by virtue of the body of Christ, which, quidem horribile, fateor; inficiari tamen nemo poterit, quin as such, could not be in several places, but by virtue præsciverit Deus, quem exitum esset habiturus homo, antequam ipsum conderet, et ideo præsciverit, quia decreto suo ita of the power of the Holy Ghost-a supernatural comordinarat. In præscientiam Dei si quis hic invehatur, temere munication which no human understanding could ex- et inconsulte impingit. Quid enim, quæso, est cur reus agatur plain. This communion with Christ, by which he celestis judex, quia non ignoraverit quod futurum erat? communicates himself and all his blessings, the Sup- prædestinationem competit in quid est vel justæ vel speciosa querimoniæ. Nec absurdum videri debet quod dico, Deum per symbolically represents. The outward is indeed non inodo primi hominis casum et in eo posterorum ruinam merely a sign, but not an empty sign; it really prævidisse; sed arbitrio quoque suo dispensasse. presents that which is signified by it, namely, the ejus sapientiam pertinet omnium quæ futura sunt esse præactual participation of the body of Christ by thecium sic ad potentiam, omnia manu sua regere ac moderari. power of the Holy Spirit. He explains the words of the institutions metonymically, in the sense that the sign is used for the thing signified; he denied Any bodily presence of Christ; Christ does not descend to earth, but believers by the power of the Holy Spirit are raised to communion with him in heaven. Christ also descends to them not only by virtue of his Spirit, but also by the outward symbol;

III, 21, 1.-Numquam liquido ut decet persuasi erimus salutem nostram ex fonte gratuite misericordiæ Dei fluere, donec innotuerit nobis æterna ejus electio, quæ hac comparatione gratiam Dei illustrat quod non omnes promiscue adoptat in spem salutis, sed dat aliis, quod aliis negat. Hujus principii ignorantia quantum ex gloria Dei imminuat, quantum veræ humilitati detrahat, palam est.

In

Ut enim ad

III, 23, 1.-Contenta sit fidei sobrietas hac Pauli admonitione (Rom. ix, 22) non esse causam litigandi cum Deo, si ab una parte vol: ns ostendere iram et notam facere potentiam interitum; ab altera autem notas faciat divitias gloriæ suæ suam ferat in multa tolerantia et lenitate vasa iræ apparata in erga vasa misericordiæ, quæ præparavit in gloriam. Minime tamen consentaneum est præparationem ad interitum alio transferre, quam ad arcanum consilium Dei; quod etiam paul

ante in contextu aperitur, quod Deus excitaverit Pharaonem. deinde quos vult induret. Unde sequitur absconditum Dei consilium obdurationis esse causam.

Yanethon on his side. Melancthon called him the mod- | toire, etc., de J. Calvin, par J. M. V. Audin, Paris, 2 vols. ern Zeno, who wanted to introduce a stoical necessity 1841) has the sole merit of a lively and piquant style. into the Church, and expressed himself very warmly An English translation has been published in Baltimore against him (Corpus Reformat. vii, 932). When Cal- (History, etc., of John Calvin, translated from Audin, by vin sent Melancthon his Confession of Faith, the lat- John M'Gill, 8vo); and it has also been translated ter was so excited that he struck his pen through the into German (Augsb. 1843-44, 2 vols.), into Italian (in whole passage on predestination. Calvin remarked Pirotta's Bibliot. Eccles. vols. ix and x, Milan, 1843), that this was very unlike his ingenita mansuetudo; that and into other languages. A graphic but superficial he could not imagine how a man of Melancthon's acute- Liography has been published by Thomas H. Dyer ness could reject this doctrine, and said, reproachfully, (Lond. 1850; N. Y., Harpers, 1851). A biography, tothat he could not believe that he held the doctrines he gether with select writings of Calvin, was published professed with a sincere heart. On account of a doc- by Stähelin (J. Clvin. Leb. u. ausgewählte Schriften, trine to which speculation had by no means led him, Elberfeld, 2 vols. 1860, 1863). There is a good sketch he reproached him with judging nimis philosophice con- of Calvin's life, by Robbins, in the Bibliotheca Sacra, cerning free will." vol. ii, for 1845. On the theology of Calvin, see Gass, Prot. Dogmatik, vol. i, bk.i; art. CALVINISM; and Rerue Chrétienne, 1863, p. 720; Cunningham, The Reformers and Theology of the Reformation, Essays, vi-x. See also Tulloch, Leaders of the Reformation (new ed. Lond. 1861); Bungener, Calvin, his Life and Works (Edinb. 1862, 8vo). The Letters of Calvin, from original MSS., were first edited by Bonnet and translated by Consta

Calvin professes to be only a borrower from St. Augustine (Inst. bk. iii, ch. xxiii, § 13); and he repudiates the consequences that have been charged upon his doctrine. For instance, he strenuously maintains that God is not the author of sin, that men act freely and accountably, and that election is a stimulus to good works rather than an opiate to inaction (Inst. bk. iii, ch. xxiii, § 3, 9, 12). See CALVINISM; PREDESTINA-ble (Edinb. 1855, 4 vols. 8vo, repub. I y Presbyterian

TION.

Board [Philadelphia]). A new edition of the Institutes in French, Institution de la Religion Chrétienne, en quatre livres, appeared in Paris, 1859 (2 vols. 8vo). It contains an introduction by the editors, with a history of previous editions. See Meth. Quart. Review, Oct. 1850, art. iii; Amer. Theol. Review, Feb. 1860, p. 129; North Brit. Review, vol. xiii; Brit, and Foreign Evang. Review, No. xxxiii; Biblioth. Sacra, xiv, p. 125; Köstlin, in Studien u. Kritiken, 1868, i, ii.

(1.) "Predestination, by which God adopts some to the hope of life, and adjudges others to eternal death, no one desirous of the credit of piety dares absolutely to deny. But it is involved in many cavils, especially by those who make foreknowledge the cause of it. We maintain that both belong to God; but it is preposterous to represent one as dependent on the other. Predestination we call the eternal decree of God, by which he hath determined in himself what he would have to become of every individual of mankind. For they are not all created with a similar destiny; but eternal life is foreordained for some, and eternal dam

III. Literature.-The best edition of the Latin works of Calvin is that of Amsterdam (1671, 9 vols. fol.). A new edition is now going on in the Corpus Reformaterum, under the title Calvini Opera quæ supersunt omnia (vols. i-v, Brunswick, 1864, 1867). An excellent and very cheap edition of the Commentarii in N. T., edited | by Tholuck, was published at Halle (1833-38, 7 vols. 8vo); one of the Comm. in Psalmos (1836, 2 vols.) and of the Institutiones Religionis Christiana was likewise Calvinism, properly, the whole system of theoloedited by Tholuck (Halle, 1834, 1835, 2 vols. 8vo); onegy taught by John Calvin, including his doctrine of of the Comm. in lib. Geneseos (1838, 8vo) by Hengsten- the sacraments, etc. It is now, however, generally used berg. Most of Calvin's writings have been translated to denote the theory of grace and predestination set into English; and a new and revised edition has been forth in Calvin's Institutes, and adopted, with more or issued under the auspices of the "Calvin Translation less modification, by several of the Protestant churchSociety," in very handsome style, yet cheap (Edinb.es. See CALVINISTS. 51 vols. 8vo). Its contents are as follows: Institutes I. Calvin's own Views (Supralapsarian).—These are of the Christian Religion, 3 vols.; Tracts on the Refor- set forth (from Neander) under the article CALVIN (q. mation, 3 vols.; Commentary on Genesis, 2 vols.; Har- v.). We give here simply such farther extracts from mony of the last Four Books of the Pentateuch, 4 vols.; Calvin's own writings as are necessary to show his Commentary on Joshua, 1 vol.; Commentary on the system. Psalms, 5 vols.; Commentary on Isaiah, 4 vols.; Commentary on Jeremiah and Lamentations, 5 vols.; Commentary on Ezekiel, 2 vols.; Commentary on Daniel, 2 vols.; Commentary on Hosea, 1 vol.; Commentary on Joel, Amos, and Obadiah, 1 vol.; Commentary on Jemah, Micah, and Nahum, 1 vol.; Commentary on Habakkuk, Zephaniah, and Haggai, 1 vol.; Commentary on Zechariah and Malachi, 1 vol.; Harmony of the Synoptical Evangelists, 3 vols.; Commentary on John's Gospel, 2 vols.; Commentary on Acts of the Apostles, 2 vols.; Commentary on Romans, 1 vol.; Commentary on Corinthians, 2 vols.; Commentary on Galatians and Ephesians, 1 vol.; Commentary on Philippians, Colossians, and Thes-nation for others. Every man, therefore, being creasalonians, 1 vol.; Commentary on Timothy, Titus, and Philemon, 1 vol.; Commentary on Hebrews, 1 vol.; Commentary on Peter, John, James, and Jude, 1 vol. There are English translations of his Institutiones by John Allen (Lond. 1813, reprinted in several editions by the Philadelphia Presbyterian Board of Publication), and by Beveridge (Edinb. 1863, 8vo). Calvin's life was writers, his gratuitous election is but half displayed till we ten in brief by Beza (Eng. ed. 1844, Edinb. Trans. Soc.; come to particular individuals, to whom God not only also Phila. 1836, 12mo) and Farel; but within the last offers salvation, but assigns it in such a manner that few years several biographies have appeared. The the certainty of the effect is liable to no suspense or most copious and elaborate is Leben J. Calvin's, von Paul doubt." He sums up the chapter in which he thus Henry, D.D. (Hamb. 1835-1844, 3 vols. 8vo. The au- generally states the doctrine in these words: "In thor procured for his work the inedited letters of Calvin, conformity, therefore, to the clear doctrine of the which are preserved in Geneva, and gives the most im- Scripture, we assert that, by an eternal and immutable portant of them in the appendices. A poor translation counsel, God hath once for all determined loth whom has been published, entitled The Life of Calvin, transla- he would admit to salvation, and whom he would conted from the German of Dr. Henry, by H. Stebbing, D.D. demn to destruction. We affirm that this counsel, as (Lond. 1849, 2 vols. 8vo); it omits most of the notes far as concerns the elect, is founded on his gratuitous and appendices which make up great part of Henry's mercy, totally irrespective of human merit; but that work. A Roman Catholic biography by Audin (His- to those whom he devotes to condemnation, the gate

ted for one or the other of these ends, we say he is predestinated either to life or to death." After having spoken of the clection of the race of Abraham, and then of particular branches of that race, he proceeds: "Though it is sufficiently clear that God, in his secret counsel, freely chooses whom he will, and rejects oth

en by their own fault from their primeval integrity into sin and destruction, according to the most free good pleasure of his own will, and of mere grace, a certain number of men, neither better nor worthier than others, but lying in the same misery with the rest, to salvation in Christ, whom he had, even from eternity, constituted Mediator and head of all the elect, and the foundation of salvation; and therefore he decreed to give them unto him to be saved, and effectually to call and draw them into communion with him by his word and Spirit; or he decreed himself to give unto them true faith, to justify, to sanctify, and at length powerfully to glorify them, etc. (Eph. i, 4-6; Rom. viii, 30). This same election is not made from any foreseen faith, obedience of faith, holiness, or any other good quality and disposition, as a prerequisite cause or condition in the man who should be elected, etc. He hath chosen us,' not because we were, but that we might be holy,' (Eph. i, 4; Rom. ix, 11-13; Acts xiii, 48). Moreover, holy Scripture doth illustrate and commend to us this eternal and free grace of our election, in this more especially, that it doth testify all men not to be elected; but that some are non-elect, or passed by, in the eternal election of God, whom truly God, from most free, just, irreprehensible, and immutable good pleasure, decreed to leave in the common misery into which they had, by their own fault, cast themselves; and not to bestow on them living faith, and the grace of conversion; but having been left in their own ways, and under just judgment, at length, not only on account of their unbelief, but also of all their other sins, to condemn and eternally punish them, to the manifestation of his own justice. And this is the decree of reprobation, which determines that God is in no wise the author of sin (which, to be thought of, is blasphemy), but a tremendous, incomprehensible, just judge and aven

ger."

1

rable Author of all good should work in us, there could be no hope to man of rising from the fall by that free will by which, when standing, he fell into ruin."

(5.)" On Perseverance.-God, who is rich in mercy, from his immutable purpose of election, does not wholly take away his Holy Spirit from his own, even in lamentable falls; nor does he so permit them to glide down (prolabi) that they should fall from the grace of adoption and the state of justification; or commit the sin unto death,' or against the Holy Spirit; that, being deserted by him, they should cast themselves headlong into eternal destruction. So that not by their own merits or strength, but by the gratuitous mercy of God, they obtain it, that they neither totally fall from faith and grace, nor finally continue in their falls and perish."

The Confessions of the Reformed Church agree more or less closely with the statements of Dort, whether they preceded or followed it in date. See the Confessio Gallica, art. 12; Confessio Belgica, art. 16; Form. Convensus Helvet. arts. 4 and 19; Conf. Helvet. ii, 10. (See Winer, Comp. Darstellung, ix, 1; Hagenbach, History of Doctrines, § 249.) The Westminster Confession is the standard of the Church of Scotland, and of the various Presbyterian Churches in Europe and America. Its 3d article states God's Eternal Decree as fol

lows:

"Of God's Eternal Decree.-God from all eternity did, by the most wise and holy counsel of his own will, freely and unchangeably ordain whatsoever comes to pass; yet so as thereby neither is God the author of sin, nor is violence offered to the will of the creatures, nor is the liberty or contingency of second causes taken away, but rather established. Although God knows whatsoever may or can come to pass upon all supposed conditions, yet hath he not decreed anything because he foresaw its future, or as that which would come to pass upon such conditions. By the decree of God, for the manifestation of his glory, some men and angels are predestinated unto everlasting life, and others foreordained to everlasting death. These angels and men, thus predestinated and foreordained, are particularly and unchangeably designed, and their number is so certain and definite that it cannot be either increased or diminished. Those of mankind that are predestinated unto life, God, before the foundation of the world was laid, according to his eternal and immutable purpose, and the secret counsel and good pleasure of his will, hath chosen, in Christ, unto everlasting

(2.) "Of the Death of Christ."-Passing over, for brevity's sake, what is said of the necessity of atonement in order to pardon, and of Christ having offered that atonement and satisfaction, it is added, "This death of the Son of God is a single and most perfect sacrifice and satisfaction for sins, of infinite value and price, abundantly sufficient to expiate the sins of the whole world; but because many who are called by the Gospel do not repent, nor believe in Christ, but perish in unbelief; this doth not arise from defect or insufficiency of the sacrifice offered by Christ upon the cross, but from their own fault. God willed that Christ, through the blood of the cross, should out of every peo-glory, out of his mere free grace and love, without any ple, tribe, nation, and language, efficaciously redeem all those, and those only, who were from eternity chosen to salvation, and given to him by the Father; that he should confer on them the gift of faith," etc.

(3.) "Of Man's Corruption, etc.-All men are conceived in sin, and born the children of wrath, indisposed (inepti) to all saving good, propense to evil, dead in sin, and the slaves of sin; and without the regenerating grace of the Holy Spirit, they neither are willing nor able to return to God, to correct their depraved nature, or to dispose themselves to the correction of it."

(4.) "Of Grace and Free-will.-But in like manner as, by the fall, man does not cease to be man, endowed with intellect and will, neither hath sin, which hath pervaded the whole human race, taken away the nature of the human species, but it hath depraved and spiritually stained it; so that even this divine grace of regeneration does not act upon men like stocks and trees, nor take away the properties of his will, or violently compel it while unwilling; but it spiritually quickens, heals, corrects, and sweetly, and at the same time powerfully, inclines it; so that whereas before it was wholly governed by the rebellion and resistance of the flesh, now prompt and sincere obedience of the Spirit may begin to reign; in which the renewal of our spiritual will, and our liberty, truly consist; in which manner (or for which reason), unless the admi

foresight of faith, or good works, or perseverance in either of them, or any other thing in the creature, as conditions, or causes moving him thereunto; and all to the praise of his glorious grace. As God hath appointed the elect unto glory, so hath he, by the eternal and most free purpose of his will, foreordained all the means thereunto. Wherefore they who are elected, being fallen in Adam, are redeemed by Christ, are effectually called unto faith in Christ, by his Spirit working in due season; are justified, adopted, sanctified, and kept by his power through faith unto salvation. Neither are any other redeemed by Christ, effectually called, justified, adopted, sanctified, and saved, but the elect only. The rest of mankind God was pleased, according to the unsearchable counsel of his own will, whereby he extendeth or withholdeth mercy, as he pleaseth, for the glory of his sovereign power over his creatures, to pass by, and to ordain them to dishonor and wrath for their sin, to the praise of his glorious justice."

The 17th article of the Church of England is as follows:

"Of Predestination and Election.-Predestination to life is the everlasting purpose of God, whereby (before the foundations of the world were laid) he hath constantly decreed, by his counsel, secret to us, to deliver from curse and damnation those whom he hath chosen

in Christ out of mankind, and to bring them by Christ to everlasting salvation, as vessels made to honor. Wherefore they which he endued with so excellent a benefit of God be called according to God's purpose, by his Spirit working in due season: they, through grace, obey the calling: they be justified freely: they be made sons of God by adoption: they be made like the image of his only-begotten Son Jesus Christ: they walk religiously in good works; and at length, by God's grace, they attain to everlasting felicity. As the godly consideration of predestination and our election in Christ is full of sweet, pleasant, and unspeakable comfort to godly persons, and such as feel in themselves the working of the Spirit of Christ, mortifying the works of the flesh and their earthly members, and drawing up their mind to high and heavenly things, as well because it doth greatly establish and confirm their faith of eternal salvation to be enjoyed through Christ, as because it doth fervently kindle their love toward God; so, for curious and carnal persons, lacking the Spirit of Christ, to have continually before their eyes the sentence of God's predestination is a most dangerous downfall, whereby the devil doth thrust them either into desperation, or into wretchedness of most unclean living, no less perilous than desperation. Furthermore, we must receive God's promises in such wise as they be generally set forth to us in holy Scripture. And in our doings, that will of God is to be followed which we have expressly declared unto us in the Word of God."

Fall, the covenant of grace. The latter covenant embraces a threefold economy: (1) The economy before the law; (2) The economy under the law; (3) The economy of the Gospel. See his Summa Doctrinæ de Fodere et Testamentis Dei, 1648. Heppe says: "The fruit of his influence was to lead the Reformed theologians back to the freedom of the Word of God, deliv ering it from the bondage of a traditional scholasticism." This type of Calvinism was still farther developed in the writings of Braun, Doctrina Fœderum 1698; of Burmann of Utrecht († 1679), Synopsis Theologia et Economia Faderum Dei, 1671; Heidanus of Leyden († 1678), Corpus Theol. Christ. 1687; and especially of Witsius of Leyden († 1708), whose Economy of the Covenants (1694) was translated into English (Lond. 1763; revised ed. Edinb. 1771, 1803; New York, 3 vols. 1798). This theology of the covenants also shaped, to a considerable extent, the Reformed system as it was adopted in England, Scotland, and America. It is clearly recognised in the Westminster Confession of Faith and Catechisms. Later writers divide the covenant of grace into two parts, viz. the covenant of redemption between the Father and the Son, and the covenant of grace between God and his people in Christ. On this important phase of the Calvinistic theology, see Ebrard, Dogmatik, i, 60 sq.; Gass, Geschichte der Protest. Dogmatik, Bd. 2, 1857; Schweizer, Glaubenslehre der evang.-reformirten Kirche, 2 Bde. 1844, and also his Protestantische Centraldogmen, 2 Bde. 1854; Schneckenburger, Vergleichende Darstellung der It has always been a question in the Church of Eng-lutherischen und reformirten Lehrbegriffe, 1855; G. land whether the Articles are or are not Calvinistic. Frank, Geschichte der Protest. Theol. 2 Bde. 1865; also On this question, see Toplady, Doctrinal Calvinism of Heppe, Degmatik d. deutschen Protestantismus, i, 204; the Church of England (Works, vol. i and ii); Overton, Dogmatik der evang.-ref. Kirche, i, 278; and the antiTrue Churchman (2d ed. York, 1801); Laurence, Bamp-cle FEDERAL THEOLOGY. tom Lecture for 1804 (Oxford, 1805, 8vo); Cunning- IV. Moderate Calvinists. This phrase designates ham, The Reformers, Essay iv (Edinb. 1862, 8vo); printed also in the Brit. and For. Evang. Rev. (No. 35); reprinted in the Am. Theol. Review (October, 1861, art. v); Hardwick, History of Reformation, ch. iv, p. 260. The Lutheran Church never adopted the Calvinistic system. In the beginning, both Luther and Melancthon received the Augustinian theology; but as early as 1529 Melancthon expunged the passages supporting it from his Loci Theologici. Luther bestowed the highest praise on the last editions of the Loci (Luther's Works, 1546, vol. i, preface; see Laurence, Bampton Lect. Sermon ii, note 21). The Augsburg Confessio Variata (xx) says: "Non est hic opus disputationibus de predestinatione et similibus. Nam promissio est universalis et nihil detrahit operibus, sed exsuscitat ad fidem et vere bona opera" (see Gieseler, Church History, iv, §§ 36, 37). In the German Reformed Church the strictly Calvinistic doctrine "never, as such, received any symbolical authority; and it was significantly left out of the Heidelberg Catechism, and handed over to the schools and scientific theology. At the same time, it was never rejected by the German Church, nor regarded with any thing like hostility." Appel, in the Tercentenary Monument of the Heidelberg Catechism, p. 327; Hase, Church History, § 354.

III. The Calvinistic system was still farther modified by the Federal Theology, or the THEOLOGY OF THE COVENANTS. Under the too exclusive influence of the doctrine of Predestination, it had assumed a schoLastic character, from which it was in part relieved by the introduction of the idea of the Covenant, as a constructive principle of the system. John Cocceius, trained in the German Reformed theology (born at Bremen 1603, died 1699), first developed the system under this point of view, the effect of which was to introduce historical facts and elements, and a distinctive ethical idea (a covenant implying mutual rights), into the heart of the system, and to banish the idea of the divine sovereignty as mere will. Cocceius distinguished between, 1. The covenant before the Fall, the Covenant of works; and, 2. The covenant after the

those, especially in England and America, who, while adhering to the Calvinistic as contrasted with the Arminian system, have yet receded from some of the extreme statements of the former, especially upon the two articles of Reprobation and the Extent of the Atonement. See Dr. E. Williams, Defence of Modern Calvinism, 1812; Sermon and Charges, p. 128, and Appendix, p. 399. Dr. Williams says: "Reprobation, or predestination to death or misery as the end, and to sin as the means,' I call an 'impure mixture' with Calvinism, as having no foundation either in the real meaning of Holy Writ, or in the nature of things; except, indeed, we mean by it, what no one questions, a determination to punish the guilty." He calls this a "mixture,' because its connection with predestination to life is arbitrary and forced; 'impure,' because the supposition itself is a foul aspersion upon the divine character."

The other point on which the moderate Calvinists modified the system is the nature and extent of the atoning work of Christ. Strict Calvinism asserts that the Lord Jesus Christ made atonement to God by his death only for the sins of those to whom, in the sovereign good pleasure of the Almighty, the benefits of his death shall be finally applied. By this definition, the extent of Christ's atonement, as a provision, is limited to those who ultimately enjoy its fruits; it is restricted to the elect of God. Both Strict and Moderate Calvinists agree as to the intrinsic worth of the atone. ment, and as to its final application. It has been asserted (e. g. by Amyraut, q. v.) that Calvin himself held to general redemption; and certainly his lan guage in his Comm. in Job, iii, 15, 16, and in 1 Tim. ii, 5, seems fairly to assert the doctrine. Comp. Fletcher, Works (N. Y. ed. ii, 71); but see also Cunningham, The Reformers (Essay vii). As to the variations of the Calvinistic confessions, see Smith's Hagenbach, History of Doctrines, § 249. In the French Reformed Church, the divines of Saumur, Camero, Amyraldus, and Placæus maintained universal grace (see articles on these names). The English divines who attended