city of Spain, and has one of the strongest fortresses. Sěv'îlle, once the residence of the Moorish kings, is situated on the Guadalquiv'ir. It is the port from which Magěl'lan sailed on his voyage of circumnavigation, in 1519. Sän Sebastian is one of the finest towns in Spain, and a place of much trade, on the Bay of Biscay.

Ferrōl', in the N. W. of Spain, is one of the three great naval stations, with a fine natural harbor, defended by formidable batteries. Barcelo'na, on the Mediterranean, is a fine city, and has considerable trade. Valen'cia, on the Guädalqui'vir, is one of the most industrious towns in Spain. Măl'aga, so famous for its grapes, wines, almonds, and other fruits, is a fortified city on the southern coast.

Gibraltar, on a spacious bay at the southern extremity of Spain, belongs to Great Britain, and is the strongest and most remarkable fortress in the world. It is a rock, forming a promontory, 3 miles long from N. to S., and from 1200 to 1400 feet in height, and almost surrounded by the waters of the Mediterranean.

§ 11. PORTUGAL.

Area, 34,500 square miles. Population, 3,412,500.

PORTUGAL was once the first commercial kingdom in Europe. The Portuguese navigators first opened to Europe the route to India, by the way of the Cape of Good Hope. Portugal is now one of the weakest states. Agriculture, manufactures, and the arts are neglected; and education is in a backward condition.

Lisbon, the capital, on the Tagus, is finely situated for trade, and has a safe and commodious harbor. Opōr'to, on the Dôu'ro, is the second city, both in industry and commerce. The principal trade is in wines, both white and red.

§ 12. ITALY.

Area, 100,439 square miles. Population, 19,365,032.

ITALY is one of the most interesting countries in the world. It was once the seat of the Roman empire. At the present time, it comprises the kingdom of Naples, or the Two

lona. Valencia. Malaga. Gibraltar. - PORTUGAL. The Portuguese. Present condition. Lisbon. Oporto. ITALY. States now included. Physical aspects.

Sicilies, the States of the Church, the republic of Sän Marî'no, the grand duchy of Tuscany and Luc'ca, the duchies of Mō'dena and Par'ma, the kingdom of Lombardy and Ven'ice, the kingdom of Sardî'nia, and the principality of Mon'aco. Italy has the loftiest mountains, the most beautiful plains, the richest soil, and the finest climate in Europe, and is unrivalled for the beauty and diversity of its scenery. In music, painting, sculpture, and architecture, the Italians excel all other nations. Agriculture languishes under the oppressive laws and customs to which the people are subjected.

The KINGDOM OF NAPLES embraces the southern part of Italy, and the fine Island of Sicily.

Naples, the capital of the kingdom, and the largest city in Italy, is noted for its swarms of beggars, its warm climate, and the beauty of the surrounding country. Mount Vesuvius, and the ruins of Herculä'neum and Pompêi'i are in its vicinity.

The Island of Sicily is the largest, finest, and most beautiful island in the Mediterranean, producing in abundance sugar, wheat, grapes, oranges, dates, &c. Here is the celebrated volcano Mount Etna. Palermo, Messî'na, Catä'nia,

and Syracuse are the chief cities.

The POPEDOM, sometimes called the States of the Church, occupies the centre of Italy, and is governed by the pope.

Rome, on the Tiber, anciently the capital of the Roman empire, and now the capital of the Papal States, is among the most celebrated spots on the face of the earth. It is noted for its temples, palaces, and monuments of splendid architecture, and interesting on account of its majestic ruins. Here is St. Peter's Church, the noblest of cathedrals; the Vătican, or pope's palace; the Colosseum, or ruins of the great amphitheatre.

SAN MARINO is a small republic, under the protection of the pope.

TUSCANY is the most flourishing and best governed portion of Italy; it is a grand duchy. Florence, on the Ar'no, is the capital, and one of the finest cities in Europe; it is noted for its paintings and sculpture. Leghorn, on the Mediterranean, is the first commercial city in Italy.

PARMA, MODENA, and LUCCA are small states, called duchies, lying next north of Tuscany.

Fine arts. Effects of government on industry. Naples. Capital. Sicily. Volcano. Towns. The Popedom. Rome. For what noted. San Marino.

SARDINIA embraces the N. W. portion of Italy and the Island of Sardinia. Turin, the capital, on the River Po, is one of the most regularly built towns in Europe, and it takes a high rank for its literary and scientific institutions. Gen'oa, Nîce, and Maren'go are celebrated places; the former as the birthplace of Columbus, and the latter for one of the most brilliant of Napoleon's victories. Spěz'ia, on the Mediterranean, possesses one of the finest harbors in Europe, and is the rendezvous of the American squadron in the Mediterra

nean.

MONACO is a small principality under the protection of Sardinia.

LOMBARDY and VENICE form the northern and eastern part of Italy, and border on Austria, to which government they belong. They are fertile regions, and have been considered the granary of Europe. Venice, the ancient capital, is one of the most remarkable cities in Europe, being built on 70 islands, and having 500 bridges. It has canals for streets, and gondolas, or boats, in place of carriages. Its history is exceedingly interesting.

Mil'an, now the capital of the Lombär'do-Venētian kingdom, is a splendid city, famed for its cathedral, the exterior of which, with its hundred spires, and its three thousand statues of various sizes, looks like a forest of marble. This city is distinguished as the centre of learning and the arts. Bres'cia, Cremō'na, and Măn'tua, Pä'dua, Vicenza, and Verō'na are also important places.

§ 13. TURKEY.

Area, 189,470 square miles. Population, 15,500,000.

The OTTOMAN EMPIRE, partly in South-eastern Europe and partly in Western Asia, comprises some of the most celebrated, best situated, and naturally finest provinces of their respective continents. European Turkey is divided into nine provinces: Roomē'lia, Thes'saly, Alba'nia, Hertzegōvî'na, Bosnia and Croa'tia, Ser'via, Bulgaria, Wâlla'chia, and Moldā'via. The government is an absolute monarchy, vested in a Sultan, who usually delegates his authority in civil and military affairs to the Grand Vizier, as his absolute lieutenTuscany. Florence. Leghorn. Parma, Modena, and Lucca. Sardinia. Turin. Genoa and Marengo. Spezia. Monaco._Lombardy and Venice. City of Venice. Milan. Other important places. - TURKEY. The Ottoman empire.

ant. There is a Council, composed of the principal ministers of state, called the " Divan'," which makes all laws, decides suits, issues firmans, &c. The imperial court is usually styled the "Sublime Porte." The governor of a province is called a Pachâ'. In religion, all the Turks, and a great part of the Albanians, are Mohammedans; the Greeks, Wâlla'chians, Moldā'vians, Ser'vians, and Bulgā'rians are members of the Greek Church; the Armenians adhere to the Greek Church, and the Jews hold to the laws of Moses. The climate is agreeable, and the soil fertile and productive. The most valuable fruits grow spontaneously, and the grain crops are generally more than sufficient for home consumption. Agriculture, however, is little understood, and less practised; for such is the nature of the government that property is insecure, and industry is obstructed.

Constantinople, the capital, on the Bos'porus, is built on seven hills, and has a safe, capacious, and beautiful harbor. The gilded domes and elegant minarets of its numerous mosques, rising from the bosom of the beautiful groves, give it a magnificent appearance at a distance; but a nearer inspection presents a confused mass of narrow, winding, steep, and dirty streets, with low and gloomy houses. onî'ca, the second commercial city of European Turkey, stands on the Gulf of Sălonî'ca. Here was situated the Christian church to which St. Paul addressed his two Epistles to the Thessalonians.

Săl

The three provinces or principalities of MOLDAVIA, WALLACHIA, and SERVIA, of which Jassy, Bucharest', and Belgrade' are the capitals, are tributary to the Porte, but are otherwise independent.

§ 14. GREECE.

Area, 18,244 square miles. Population, 998,226.

GREECE is, in many respects, one of the most celebrated countries of the world. Formerly it was the seat of civilization, learning, literature, and the arts, and the whole world was its tributary. Modern Greece is but a small province of its once mighty dominion. It is bounded on the N. by the Turkish provinces of Albania and Thessaly; E. by the European Turkey. Provinces. Government. The Divan. Sublime Porte. Pacha. Religion. Climate, &c. Constantinople. Salonica. Moldavia, Wallachia, and Servia. GREECE. Modern Greece. Boundaries. Three

Archipelago; S. and W. by the Mediterranean. It comprises three distinct portions: HELLAS, or Greece Proper, the MOREA, or Peloponnesus, and the Greek Islands of the Archipelago. The peninsula of the More'a is connected with the main land of Hellas by the Isthmus of Corinth.

The government is a constitutional monarchy. The prevailing religion is that of the Greek church. The face of the country is uneven and rugged. The soil is best adapted to pasturage, and the management of sheep is well understood. Grains and choice tropical fruits are the staple productions. Athens, the capital, and one of the most celebrated cities of the world, is situated near the Gulf of Egî'na. The antiquities of Athens are the great attraction — the Acropolis, or citadel; the remains of ancient temples, both within and without the walls; the harbor of the Pira'us, five miles below the city. Năp'oli, in the More'a, is a place of some trade; it is strongly fortified, and has an excellent harbor. Lepǎn'to, Missolon'ghi, Corinth, Navarî'no, Spar'ta, and the Pass of Thermop'yle are all renowned in history.

§ 15. THE IONIAN ISLANDS.

The IONIAN REPUBLIC comprises the Islands of Cerî'go, Zänte, Cephalonia, Ithaca, Santa Mâura, Paxo, and Corfu. They are under the protection of Great Britain. Corfu is the capital. The people are chiefly Greeks and Italians. Wine, olive oil, and currants are the chief articles of trade.

§ 16. EUROPEAN RUSSIA.

Area, 1,606,871 square miles. Population, 62,088,000.

EUROPEAN RUSSIA lies between the Arctic Ocean on the N., and the Caucä'sian Mountains, Black Sea, and Danube River on the S., and comprises more than one half of Europe. It belongs for the most part to the great central plain of Europe. The settled population is divided into six great classes: nobles, clergy, citizens, peasants, serfs, and slaves. Public schools are subjected to the direct control of the government. The Greek church is the religion of the state. Sections. Morea. Government. Religion. Face of the country. Produce. Athens. Napoli. Other renowned places. IONIAN REPUBLIC. Government. Corfu.- EUROPEAN RUSSIA. Situation. Classes of the inhabitants. Educa