Rússia is one of the Five Great Powers" of Europe. All power is vested in the Czar. He is the central point of the administration of government. He assumes the title of Autocrat of all the Russias. He delegates authority to the three great boards of administration, which are the Council of the Empire, the Directing Senate, and the Holy Synod. The commerce of Rússia is very considerable, and internal traffic is annually increasing. Novgorod', on Lake Il'men, is the great centre of inland trade. Its annual fair is perhaps the largest in the world. Rye, oats, wheat, barley, hemp, and flax are the chief productions, which, with iron, furs, leather, and tallow, form the principal articles of export.

St. Petersburg, on the Ne'va, at the head of the Gulf of Finland, is the capital, and one of the most magnificent cities in the world. Mos'cow, the former capital, is situated on the Moskwa River. It is memorable for its conflagration in 1812, on the approach of the French army under Napoleon. Warsaw, on the Vis'tula, was the capital of Poland, formerly the largest kingdom in Europe. Cron'stadt, situated on the Bay of Crōn'stadt, 20 miles from St. Petersburg, is the great naval station of the Russian fleet in the Baltic. Archān'gel is situated near the mouth of the Dwî'na: it has a fine harbor opening into the White Sea, and is the depot of merchandise destined for Siberia. Rî'ga is an important commercial town, situated at the head of the Gulf of Rî'ga. It is one of the most important fortresses in the Russian empire.

Odessa, in Southern Rússia, is the first commercial town on the Black Sea. Sevǎs'topol, on the W. coast of the Crime'a, is the principal naval station of Rússia in the Black Sea. Astrakhan', at the entrance of the Vol'ga into the Caspian Sea, is noted for its commerce, manufactures, and fisheries. Crä'cow, the capital of the late republic of Crä'cow, was the ancient capital of Poland; it stands on the Vis'tula, 160 miles S. S. W. of Warsaw.

§ 17. SWEDen.

Area, 170,096 square miles. Population, 3,316,536.

The KINGDOM OF SWEDEN forms the eastern portion of the Scandinavian peninsula, as far north as the River Tornē'a.

tion. Religion. Its political relations. The czar.

Boards of administration.

Commerce. Novgorod. Productions. St. Petersburg. Moscow. Warsaw. Cronstadt. Archangel. Riga. Odessa. Sevastopol. Astrakhan. Cracow

It is chiefly a barren country, descending in long slopes, and interrupted by small level plains, and occasionally by ranges of hills. The most southerly portion is low and flat, and is the most fertile. The country is covered, in the greater part, with pine forests. Agriculture and manufactures are in a low condition: farmers cannot find a market for their surplus produce, and corporations monopolize every art and trade. The chief exports consist of iron, timber, copper, tar, and grain. Schools are established in every parish: ninety-nine persons out of every hundred of the total population can read and write. The government is a sort of constitutional monarchy.

Stock'hōlm, the capital, is situated upon a strait which connects the Ma'lar Lake with an arm of the Bâltic. The principal public buildings are placed on three islands, which are connected with the main land and with each other by several bridges. Up'säl, built on a gentle height and part of an adjoining plain in a very fertile country, is one of the most beautiful old-fashioned cities of Europe. Gothenburg, three miles from the Căt'tegat, is the second town in the kingdom, with respect to commerce, manufactures, and population. Carlscrō'na, on the S. E. coast, is a strong town, with a fine harbor. It is the station of the Swedish navy.

§ 18. NORWAY.

Area, 122,008 square miles. Population, 1,328,471.

The

NORWAY occupies the western portion of the Scandinavian peninsula. With few exceptions, the valleys only are inhabited. The chief resources of the people are their fisheries, cattle, and iron, copper, and silver mines. government is a limited monarchy. The executive power is vested in the King of Sweden; but the legislative power is solely confided to the Stor-thing, or Parliament, composed of members elected by the people. Christiania, the capital, stands at the head of a long fiord, on a low slope surrounded with beautiful heights. The foreign trade is con siderable.

-SWEDEN. Face of the country. Of industrial pursuits. Exports. Education. Government. Stockholm. Upsal. Gothenburg. Carlscrona. — NOR

§ 19. DENMARK.

Area, 21,856 square miles. Population, 2,296,597.

DENMARK comprises the peninsula of Jutland, the islands of Zealand, Fa'nen, Läaland, with the duchies of Hōls'tein and Lau'enburg. The face of the country is similar to that of Holland. The rugged and dreary islands of Faroe and Iceland belong to this government. Denmark was formerly an absolute monarchy; but in 1834 the king gave his people a free constitution, relinquishing a large share of royal power.

Copenhagen, the capital, on the Island of Zealand, is one of the finest cities in Europe. It has an excellent harbor, and an extensive commerce. Elsinore', on the Sound, is the place where vessels passing to and from the Bâltic pay toll to Denmark. More than 18,000 vessels pass this place in the course of a year. The tolls yield a large revenue to the government.

EXERCISES IN VOYAGES AND TRAVELS.

Travel by railroad from Hamburg to Trieste, naming the states you would cross, the cities you pass through, and the battle fields on or near the route. Travel from Bremen to Lake Constance. From Dusseldorf to Basle. From Liverpool to London. From London through Birmingham to Holyhead, and thence to Dublin and Galway. Route of a mail steamer from Liverpool to New York. Trace a ship with a cargo of hemp from Cronstadt to Philadelphia. A cargo of wheat from Odessa to Bristol, England. A cargo of dried fruits and drugs from Smyrna to Boston. Import a cargo of cotton from New Orleans into Havre.

WAY. Resources. Government. Christiania. DENMARK. country. Government. Copenhagen. Elsinore.

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Face of the

CHAPTER VII.

POLITICAL DIVISIONS OF ASIA.

§ 1. INHABITANTS AND COUNTRIES.

ASIA is not only the most populous of the continents, but it also comprises within its limits the greatest variety in the species of the human race. The principal varieties are the Hindoos, the Chinese, the Tartars, the Arabs, and the Persians. The Hindoos and Arabs are generally considered as belonging to the Caucasian or white race; the Persians are a very mixed race; the Tartars differ from the Hindoos and Arabs in feature, complexion, form, manners, and language, and constitute the original stock of the Ottomans, who have long been the ruling people in South-western Asia; the Chinese are unquestionably of the Mongolian family. Besides these native families there are numerous colonies of Europe'ans in most parts of Asia; the Greeks in the Ottoman empire; the Rus'sians in Siberia; the English, Scotch, Irish, Portuguese, French, and Danes in India; the Dutch in Ceylōn', Jä'va, and the Moluc'cas; and Spaniards in the Philip'pines. Asia may be said, in general, to afford examples of every possible kind of government, from the most licentious republicanism to the most atrocious despotism.

§ 2. TURKEY IN ASIA.

ASIATIC TURKEY includes three distinct geographical regions, viz., Asia Minor and Armē'nia, Mesopotā mia, and Syria, including Palestine. The Euphra'tes and Tigris are the two great rivers. The government is the same as that of European Turkey.

ASIA. Varieties of the human race. Hindoos and Arabs. Persians. Tartars. Chinese. European colonies. Governments. ASIATIC TURKEY.

Smyrna, an ancient and celebrated city, and the chief commercial place, is situated on the west coast of Asia Minor; it has a convenient and capacious harbor. The trade in dried fruits is immense. Angora, 350 miles north-east of Smyrna, is noted for its goat's hair shawls. Erz'room is the chief town of Armē'nia. Alep'po is the emporium of Northern Syria, and is famous for its manufactures of silk stuffs, with gold and silver thread. Damăs'cus, situated in a fertile plain in the east of Syria, is one of the most ancient cities in the world. It is the point of union for the caravans of pilgrims from the north and east of Asia who travel towards the Holy Land of Arabia. Jerusalem, the Holy City of the Scriptures, in Palestine, stands on a hill, about 40 miles east of the Mediterranean Sea. The chief support of the city at the present time is derived from the numerous pilgrims and travellers who resort there to visit the holy places. Trebisonde, on the Black Sea, is an important commercial point, being the port of entry for large amounts of merchandise intended for Georgia and Persia.

§ 3. ARABIA.

ARABIA is a country of great extent and of much historical interest. The seas which surround it are of the highest commercial importance. The nature of the country keeps the Arabs divided into petty tribes, and nowhere admits of large bodies being consolidated into states. Their governments are, accordingly, of the simplest kind, and their princes have very limited powers.

Mec'ca, the capital of Hěd'jaz, is noted as the birthplace of Mā'homet, and the centre of the Mos'lem religion. It is annually visited by pilgrims from all parts of the Mohăm'medan world. Medi'na, 25 miles north of Mec'ca, is the principal fortress of Hěd'jaz. Mo'cha, in the south-west of Arabia, on the Red Sea, is a great coffee market. Aden is a station on the steamboat route to India. Muscăť' is the capital of Omăn', on the eastern coast, and its imâum' is one of the most powerful of the Arabian princes. It is considered the hottest town on the globe.

Three regions. Rivers. Government. Smyrna. Angora. Erzroom. Aleppo. Damascus. Jerusalem.-ARABIA. Effects of the physical structure of the country upon civilization and government. Mecca. Medina. Mocha.