Andes is divided into three ranges, forming the valleys of the Upper Maranōn', the Huallä'ga, and the Ucayä'le Rivers; and from the mountain knot of Lō'ja the chain divides into two great longitudinal ridges or cordilleras, passing through Ecuador' to the knot of Päs'to, in New Grenä'da. These ridges enclose a vast longitudinal valley, which is divided into three basins, of which the valley or table land of Quî'to is one of extraordinary beauty.

221. At the knot of Pas'to the Andes are again separated into three ridges: the western, or Cordillê'ra de Cho'co, which is the main chain, passes towards the Isthmus of Panamä'; the eastern, or Cordillê'ra děl Súm'ma Päz, passes north-east through New Grenä'da, along the coast of Venezuela to Cape Pä'ria; and the central ridge, or Cordillê'ra de Quîn'diu, runs north between the Magdalē'na and Câu'ca Rivers. The Peak of Tolî'ma is the highest of its summits, being 18,000 feet.

222. THE BRAZILIAN SYSTEM of mountains embraces those chains which extend from south-west to north-east along the Atlantic coast. The Sierra do Mär, or maritime range, running from Uruguay' River to Cape St. Roque', and, parallel to this, the Sier'ra do Espinha'ço, enclose the basin of the San Francis'co. Itäm'be, the highest of the Brazîl'ian Andes, (5960 feet,) is in the latter chain.

223. A transverse chain, Sierra dōs Verten'tes, begins south of Villa Rî'ca, and, running in a tortuous line, terminates near the junction of the Bê'ni and Mamō're Rivers. It forms the watershed of the tributaries of the San Francis'co and Amazōn' on the north, and those of the Rî'o de la Plä'ta on the south. Its greatest elevation is 5830 feet.

224. The ParI'MA SYSTEM of mountains is an irregular group scattered over a table land not above 2000 feet elevation, extending from west to cast, and encircled by the Orinō'co, Cassiquiä'ri, Rî'o Nê'gro, Amazōn', and the Atlantic Ocean. This system is wholly unconnected with the Andes. Rising from the south bank of the Lower Orino'co, it ascends by four successive terraces to undulating plains.

225. The Siĕr'ra Parî'me is the principal chain, extending from the River Mê'ta across the plains of Esmerälda.

This

and Huanuco. River valleys. Division between the knot of Loja and the knot of Pasto. Enclosed valley.-221. Division at the knot of Pasto. Cordillera of Choco. Of Summa Paz. Of Quindiu. Peak of Tolima. -222. Brazilian system. Parallel ranges. Peak of Itambe. Watershed. 224. Parima system of mountains. Terraces. - 225. The Sierra Parime. Other ridges.

223. Sierra dos Vertentes. Distinct from the Andes. Loftiest summit of the

chain rises abruptly, and forms the watershed between the tributaries of the Orinō'co and the Amazōn'. The other ridges, though not of great height, are very rugged, and are separated by plains, savannas, and immense forests. The peak of the Cêr'ro Duî'da, 7149 feet in height, is the loftiest summit of this system.

226. There are, altogether, upwards of thirty volcanoes in South America, in a state of activity. They all belong to the Andes, and consist of three distinct series the series of Chî'le, of Peru' and Bolî'via, and of Quî'to. The loftiest are the Sahä'ma, 22,350 feet, and Gualatiê'ri, 21,960 feet, which are in the Peruvian series.

§ 3. PLATEAUS OF SOUTH AMERICA.

227. The table land, or Valley of Desaguadê'ro, is enclosed between the Cordillê'ra Reäl' and the Cordillê'ra of the coast, at an elevation of nearly 13,000 feet above the level of the ocean. It is from 30 to 60 miles broad, and about 400 miles in length. The city of Poto'si and Lake Titicä'ca are situated in this valley, and in the eastern range are the lofty summits of Sorä'ta and Illimä'ni.

228. The Peruvian table land extends from the knot of Cus'co to the knot of Lō'ja, in Ecuador'. The plateau of Quî'to, in Ecuador', extends from the knot of Lō'ja to that of Päs'to, 270 miles in length and from 15 to 30 in breadth, with an elevation of 9500 feet. It is clothed with the verdure of perpetual spring, and is surrounded by some of the loftiest volcanoes in the world. No less than eleven snowclad summits are visible from the plain, among which are Chimborä'zo, 21,424 feet, Antisä'na, 19,137 feet, Cotopăx'i, 18,875 feet, Tungurä'gua, 16,424 feet, and Pichin'cha, 15,924 feet.

229. The Brazilian table land occupies half the empire, with a part of Uruguay'. Its form is triangular, one side extending along the shores of the Atlantic, from Rî'o de la Plä'ta nearly to the equator, thence west to the junction of the Bê'ni and Mamō're Rivers. It is not over 2500 feet elevation.

Parima. 226. Of volcanoes. The highest. 227. Plateau of Desaguadero. City of Potosi and Lake Titicaca. Mounts Sorata and Illimani. 228. Peruvian table land. Plateau of Quito. Volcanoes visible from the plain. — 229

§ 4. DECLIVITIES AND PLAINS OF SOUTH AMERICA.

230. The Lowlands of South America may be divided into three sections, corresponding to the three great rivers the Amazōn', the Orinō'co, and La Plä'ta.

231. The great plain of the Amazon' embraces all the central portion of South America, extending from the foot. of the Andes to the sea and the mountains of Brazil'. It comprises a large portion of Brazil', with parts of New Grenä'da, Ecuadōr', Perù', and Bolî'via. Its limits include nearly all the basin of the Amazōn', with the lower parts of the Madêi'ra and Tocantins'.

232. A large part of this plain is occupied by the sěl'vas of the Amazōn', which extend 1500 miles along the river, varying in width from 350 to 800 miles. The surface is more uneven than the pampas of the south, and covered with dense forests. North of the selvas are some marshy savannas, and south are some grassy steppes, but which, compared with the selvas, are insignificant.

233. The Llä'nos of the Orinō'co, in New Grenä'da and Venezuela, extend from the Caquê'ta River to the mouth of the Orinō'co, along the Guaviä're and Mê'ta Rivers, and are of a dead level. They form a desert in the dry season; but in the wet season hundreds of square miles are inundated. These plains are so connected with those of the Amazon that the Cassiquiä're flows from the Orinō'co into the Rî'o Nê'gro, a tributary of the Amazon.

234. The plain of the Rî'o de la Plä'ta is bounded on the west by the Andes, and on the east by the mountains of Brazîl' and the Atlantic. It embraces the south-west part of Brazil', Paraguay', Buê'nos Ay'res, and part of Patagō'nia.

235. A large portion of this plain is known as the pampas of La Plä'ta, which are vast plains of grass, without trees or mountains. Some parts are swampy, others are barren, excepting in the wet season, when there is a rich covering of grass. The pampas sink to a low level along the foot of the Andes, where the streams from the mountains collect in large lakes and swamps.

236. Eastern Patagō'nia is a succession of gravelly plains

Brazilian table land. - 230. Three sections of lowlands.231. Plain of the Amazon. 232. The selvas. Country north and south of the selvas. — 233. The Llanos of the Orinoco. Their condition in the dry and the wet seasons. Connection with the plains of the Amazon. 234. Plain of the La Plata. 235. Pampas of La Plata. Foot of the Andes. 236. Eastern Patagonia.

or terraces, at higher and higher levels, separated by long lines of cliffs. The ascent is small, for at the foot of the Andes the highest of these platforms is not over 3000 feet above the ocean level. The plains are here and there intersected by a ravine or a stream, the waters of which do not fertilize the soil. The desert extends to a few miles north of the Colorä'do.

237. The Andes descend to the eastern plains in Buê'nos Ay'res by a series of cultivated terraces. That of Tucumän', 2500 feet elevation, is the garden of the state. On the western slope of the Andes little or no rain falls, except at their most southern extremity. That portion of Western Bolivia which lies between the Andes and the Pacific is the Desert of Atacä'ma, in some parts of which no plant, no bird, no insect whatever is seen.

§ 5. RIVER SYSTEMS OF SOUTH AMERICA.

238. There are no large rivers flowing into the Pacific Ocean from South America, because the vast and lofty range of the Andes is on the western side of the continent, and at no great distance from the coast. Nearly all the waters of this continent flow into the Atlantic.

239. At the northern extremity of the Andes three rivers, parallel to each other, flow northerly into the sea the Magdalê/na, the Câu ca, and the Aträto. These drain the valleys in the north-west portion of New Grenä'da. In the eastern part of Brazil' the St. Francis'co River drains the valley between the mountain ranges parallel to the coast, keeping a northerly course till it reaches the 10th degree of south latitude, where it bends eastward and flows into the Atlantic. In the far south the Colorä'do and Nê'gro flow into the Atlantic.

240. South America has three grand river systems: first, the Orinō'co; second, the Amazōn'; and third, the La Plä'ta, all of which pour their waters into the Atlantic Ocean.

241. The basins of these three rivers are separated in their lower portions by the mountains and highlands of the Parî'ma and Brazîl'. The central parts of the basins of all 237. The Andes in Buenos Ayres. Western slope of the Andes. Desert of Atacama. 238. Why are there no large rivers flowing into the Pacific from South America? Into what do most of the waters of this continent flow? 239. Three rivers at the northern extremity of the Andes. River St. FrancisThe Colorado and Negro. — 240. Three grand river systems of this continent. — 241. Their basins how separated in their lower portions. Central parts

co.

three, towards the foot of the Andes, form an extensive level, and are only divided from one another by imperceptible elevations in the plains, barely sufficient to form the watersheds between their tributaries. This peculiar structure is the cause of the natural canal of the Cassiquiä're, which connects the Upper Orino'co and Rî'o Nè'gro.

242. The ORINOCO, the first of the great river systems of South America, rises in the Sierra del Parî'ma, 200 miles east of the Peak of Duî'da, and runs westerly until it receives the Guaviä're from the Andes. It then runs north, receiving the waters of the Mê'ta and Apù're coming from the west, and then, turning eastward, holds this course till it flows through several mouths into the Atlantic Ocean. The Orinō'co is navigable for 1000 miles at all seasons. The Mê ta may be ascended to the foot of the Andes. The basin of the Orino'co has an area of 300,000 square miles.

243. The AMAZON, forming the second great river system of South America, drains the eastern declivity of the Andes, from the equator to the 20th degree of south latitude. The Tungurä'gua, or Marañon', its highest source, flows from Lake Lauricō'cha in a plain 96 miles north-west of Lî'ma, and 60 miles from the Pacific. It takes at first a northerly course till it reaches Jaên', in 51° S. lat.; thence it pursues an easterly direction of nearly 4000 miles to the Atlantic. The tide flows up 400 miles, and the river is navigable to the foot of the Andes. More than 20 superb rivers, navigable almost to their sources, pour their waters into it, besides numberless small streams. On its southern bank it receives the Huallä'ga and Ucayä'le from Peru; the Madêi'ra, its largest tributary, from Bolî'via; and the Topaỹ'os, Xin'gu, and Tocan ́tîns', from Brazîl'. Its northern affluents are the Putumay'o, Caquê'ta, and Rî'o Nê'gro. The Amazon and its tributaries drain an area of 2,500,000 square miles.

244. The RIO DE LA PLATA and its tributaries comprise the third great river system of South America. The estuary of this river is about 185 miles in length, and nowhere less than 30 miles in breadth, expanding at its entrance into the Atlantic to 150 miles. It is shallow and loaded with mud, which discolors the ocean for many miles from its mouth.

of the basins. The Cassiquiare River. 242. Describe the system of the

Orinoco. Area of the basin. 243. Describe the Amazon. Its first course. From Jaen to its mouth. Tide and navigation. Navigable tributaries of the Amazon. Tributaries from the south. From the north. Area of the basin. 244. The third river system of South America. Describe the Rio de la Plata. The Uruguay. The Parana. The Paraguay. The western tributaries of the