continued till the 26th of June. At this session an act was passed, by which a system of national education was established throughout France. This measure had been introduced on the 2nd of January, by M. Goizot, in a speech of remarkable ability, and abounding with profound and enlightened views. The law establishes three descriptions of schools; elementary schools, of which every commune or parish is bound to maintain one, except when two or more small communes join to maintain the same school; middle schools, for the higher branches of education, of which there is to be one in every departmental town, and in every parish having more than 6000 inhabitants; and normal schools, for the training of teachers, of which there is also to be one for each department. The elementary education, which is to be given to every person born in the country, is to consist of reading, writing, French grammar, and arithmetic, together with moral and religious instruction. The masters in all these schools are

to have small salaries, paid by the parish or department; but are to derive the chief part of their emoluments from fees. Each parish school is to be under the immediate management of a communal committee, of which the curé of the parish is to be ex officio a member, and which is also to contain one minister of each of the other religious persuasions that may exist in the commune. The whole system is placed under the direction of the member of the cabinet known in France as the minister of public instruction. The plan is borrowed from that which has been for some years in operation in Prussia, to which country M. Cousin was some time ago sent by the government to examine and report on it.

The indemnity bill was again. neglected, and although General Lafayette urged upon the chambers the necessity of disposing of this irritating subject, the session was suffered to expire without making any appropriation to comply with the express provisions of the treaty.

EUROPE now seems to be divided into two portions, occupied by distinct parties, which are actuated by antagonist principles :

The northern powers, controlled by the policy of Russia, Austria, and Prussia, on the principle of arbitrary power; and the southern powers, influenced by the views of England, and France, on the principal of

constitutional government. Not that the lines of demarcation are clearly drawn, or that these parties are strictly confined to their respective districts. On the contrary, the liberals are making much progress in Germany, and even in Poland they chafe under a galling chain; while in the peninsula a severe, and not unequal contest, is raging between the adherents of an abso

lute government, and the friends of constitutional monarchy.

The commencement of the year 1833, found the rival brothers, Don Pedro and Don Miguel, engaged in an arduous contest for the throne of Portugal: Don Pedro contending for the right of his daughter, Donna Maria, the legitimate representative, aided by English treasure, and volunteers from France and England; and Don Miguel maintaining his right as possessor of the crown, with the consent, and ardent support of all the Catholic subjects of Portugal. By the superiority of his force, Don Miguel was enabled to drive his brother and his army within the town of Oporto, where he was besieged from the early part of the summer, until the beginning of 1833, when he placed general Solignac, a French officer of distinguished ability, at the head of the liberating army," still closely shut up in Oporto.

In April there were about 14,000 troops within the walls of the town, beleagured by about 20,000 men under the command of marshal Bourmont. The seige was conducted without much vigour, chiefly by means of attacks, which were always repelled, and bombardments without effect.

At length, Solignac, who did not agree with the advisers of Don Pedro, resigned, and returned to France, and Sartorious at the same time, retired from the command of the fleet.

General Saldanha was then appointed commander of the land, and captain Charles Napier, a

British naval officer of the naval forces. It was now determined to act upon the offensive. On the 21st of June, accordingly, admiral Napier took on board. his ships at Oporto a force of 3,500 men, under the eommand of the brave count Villa Flor and the marquis of Palmella. On the 24th the expedition appeared before Villa Real, in the Algarves, where a garrison of 1200 Miguelites were presently dislodged by the fire from the ships. The Pedroite troops were then landed, and in the course of the day were joined by 800 Portuguese, who declared for Donna Maria. As soon as these successes were known in the interior, all the adjacent towns sent deputations to proclaim their adhesion to the young queen, The troops of Donna Maria were then divided into two columns, and marched through the ancient kingdom of the Algarves, without resistance. Admiral Napier sailed along the coast with his squadron, consisting of one ship of the line, two frigates, 2 corvettes, 1 brig, and five steamboats.

On the 3d of July, he fell in with the fleet of Don Miguel, much superior in force to his own, consisting of two ships of the line, two frigates, one corvette, and three brigs. With great gallantry, he at once determined to attack them, and although the steam-boats, which were hired as transports, refused to co-operate, yet aided by a favourable breeze, he bore down on them, and aided by his son, Captain Napier, who commanded a frigate, carried one of the

seventy-fours by boarding. This gallant action intimidated the enemy, and the rest of the squadron, except the brigs, was easily taken.

ces.

however, was not yet free from the horrors of war, and scenes of bloodshed were among the first she was to witness in her dominions. On the 10th of October, when the Miguelites had finished some redoubts before Lisbon, and were on the point of planting some formidable batteries against that city, a sally was made by four strong colums, which drove them from their positions. They rallied the next day; but were again. repulsed with loss. They then

ed.

A national guard was formed, and Donna Maria proclaimed. In the mean time, Marshal Bourmont was making desperate efforts to take Oporto by storm. Having been twice repulsed, he raised the siege on the 9th of August, and marched towards Lisbon, to attack that city. On the 5th, 9th, and 14th of September, he made persevering and spirited assaults upon the capital, in one of which they penetrated to the palace of Adjuda. Finding, however, that Lisbon could not be taken, and that Don Pedro's cause was daily growing stronger, he left Don Miguel's service, together with the other French officers. The young queen, Donna Maria, who with her mother, the duchess of Braganza, had been for some time residing in Paris, from whence they proceeded together on a short visit to the English court-arrived at Lisbon from Plymouth on the 22d of September. That city,

This post, which is strongly situated on a lofty hill, within two days' march of Lisbon, they retained in their possession at the close of the year, and no further military movements of importance were made by either party.

Don Pedro, in the mean time, acting as regent, proceeded to the confiscation of church property, where hostility had been shown to the cause of his daugh ter. A court of ecclesiastical reform was instituted, composed entirely of churchmen, which decreed the abolition of two large monasteries, awarding their sacramental plate to poor parishes; their books, to public libraries; their furniture to the use of the government, and the remainder of their possessions to be applied by the government to religious purposes.

The contest still continued at the end of the year 1833, and we must postpone an account of its termination to another volume.

While this fraternal strife was raging in Portugal, the elements of a similar contest between the royal brothers. of Spain, were gathering in the adjoining kingdom.

When Ferdinand became the father of a daughter, in 1830, influenced by the natural desire that his children should succeed him, he issued a decree abolishing the salic law, by which females were prohibited from ascending the throne. This law was not, as in France, an ancient law of royal succession, but was first introduced into the Spanish monarchy by Philip V., who, in 1714, abrogated the law of succession, which had been until then observed in Spain, and established that of France.

This law, although an innovation, has, until the present time, not been called into action, as the regular succession has been through the male members of the royal family.

The decree of Philip V. has by many been deemed a fundamental law of succession, and as Don Carlos had always counted that the crown would as a matter of course devolve upon him, he was incensed by this decree of his brother, and looked about for allies to enable him to enforce his pretensions upon the death of Ferdinand. These allies he very naturally found among the friends of hereditary right, and the old absolute monarchy. He in this manner, as well as from his known disposition, became identified with that party, which

the

on its part relied on him for carrying out its favourite system of government. This party being thus secured in favour of Don Carlos, it became incumbent on the king to secure the good will of the moderates, and, if possible, that of the democrats, who might rally round. widow queen and the young infanta Donna Maria Isabella. This was to make, at once, any contention that might take place not a war of succession, but a war of political principle. To forward his views for the succession of his child, Ferdinand, as much as his disposition and habits would permit, adopted a milder plan of government. He also, on the 15th of October, 1832, eight months after the birth of his second daughter, granted an amnesty in favour of all individuals exiled or other wise punished or pursued for political offences, excepting only such individuals as had voted in cortes the entire subversion of the throne, or had been at the head of armed bodies against him. A few days after this, being obliged, by his infirmities, to renounce for a while the cares of government, he appointed the young queen regent. A complete change was instantly made in the ministry, and a still more liberal course of politics adopted. Meanwhile, the party of Don Carlos contrived several under. plots, and even procured from the king a counter decree, annulling that published in 1830, which abolished the salic law, and excluded his brother from

the throne. Ferdinand, how ever, having partially renewed his health, on the 31st of December, 1832, put forth an autograph declaration, importing that this, last decree in favour of Don Carlos, had been extorted from him during his illness; that he hereby annulled it, and confirmed the decree of 1830, which regulated the new order of succession in favour of his daughter. On the fourth of January, 1833, Ferdinand resumed the reins of government. Her majesty, however, continued to be associated with the king in the exercise of sovereign authority. A few days previously to Ferdinand's re-appearance on the theatre of government, 1500 absolutists absolutists made an unsuccessful attempt to get possession of the city of Toledo.

These proceedings induced Ferdinand to promulgate two documents-one ordering his subjects to take a general oath of allegiance to his elder daughter, and the other summoning the cortes to meet on the 20th of June. Don Carlos, who had retired with his family into Portugal in the middle of March, published on the 29th of April a declaration, stating, that with the conviction in which he remained, that he was the legitimate successor to the throne of Spain, in case the king should die without heirs male, neither his conscience nor his honour permitted him to take the oath of allegiance to the young prin

cess.

To this declaration Ferdinand, on the 7th of May, replied, that

important political reasons, law, and even the repose of the infant Don Carlos himself, interdicted his return into Spain. He was, therefore, authorized to repair with his family to Rome, or any part of the Papal states. king also insisted that no foreign power had a right to interfere in the internal administration of Spain, or to take any notice of the protest of Carlos. Eleven days after this reply, another protest was made by the reigning king of the two Sicilies, against Ferdinand's alteration of the order of succession.

In spite, however, of protests and declarations, the deputies of the provinces and cities of the kingdom of Spain, met on the 20th of June, and in the church of Saint Jerome, at Madrid, swore, with all due formality, to be faithful to the Infanta Donna Maria Isabella Louisa, princess of Austrias, as lawful heiress of the crown.

About three months after this, Ferdinand VII. expired, confirming by his last will his decree of 1830, and appointing the dowager queen, regent during the minority of his daughter. Having assured herself of the fidelity of the troops at Madrid, the king's death was announced, and the young queen and the regency were proclaimed.

Though her authority was recognised and maintained at Madrid, Carlist movements immediately took place in various parts of the kingdom. The great strength of this party proved to be in Navarre and