parts of the world by the pride or learning of the Ptolemies at once perished.

At length Omar fell by the hand of an assassin, a Persian slave, who thought, perhaps, by this means to avenge the wrongs of his miserable country. Watching his opportunity when the caliph was at morning prayers the murderer rushed into the mosque, and with a small dagger inflicted six wounds upon his person, ere he had left the pulpit. One of these proved mortal, and the reign of Omar terminated after ten years of prosperity. His piety, justice, abstinence, and simplicity have procured him more reverence among good Mussulmans than the grandeur of any of his successors could command. "His walking stick," says Alwakide," struck more terror into those who were present, than another man's sword." His diet was dates, or coarse barley-bread dipped in salt; his drink water; and sometimes, by way of penance, he would eat his bread without salt. Of religious duties he was a punctual observer, and, during his brief caliphate, had performed nine pilgrimages to Mecca. He preached in a tattered cotton gown, torn in twelve places; and a Persian satrap, when he paid homage to the conqueror of his nation, found him lying asleep among the beggars on the steps of the mosque at Medina. During the ten years of his administration, 4000 churches were destroyed, and 1400 mosques erected on their ruins. Abubeker had styled himself the caliph or deputy of Mahomet. Omar if he adopted a similar style would have been caliph of the caliph of the prophet; but as such a title was deemed tautological and might have increased to an inconvenient length, he took that of Emir el

Muemenin or emperor of the faithful, a designation which continued till the word ealiph came to be almost synonymous with emperor. They are now used almost interchangeably.

CHAPTER XIII.

The progress of the Arabian empire.-Death of Omar, and elevation of Othman.-Alexandria dismantled.-Africa entered by the Saracen troops.-Battle near Tripoli, and fall of that city.-Disaffection against Othman.-His assassination.-Ali becomes caliph.-Ayesha's opposition to him.-Battle of Bassora. Rebellion of Moawiyah.-Ali's murder.-Hassan his son made caliph.-Resigns in favour of Moawiyah. - New dynasty.-Ayesha's death.-Yezid.-Hosein's fate.-Arab factions.-Dynasty of Abbas.-Africa conquered.-Spain.-Conquests in the East.-Samarcand and Tartary.-China.-Siege of Constantinople.-Reverse of the Arab arms.-Charles Martel.-Greeks subdued.-Mediterranean islands.-Rome.

THE death of Omar renewed the contests for the caliphate. The claims of his own son were passed over, and probably distrusting his judgment in a matter of so much importance, and equally doubtful of the merits of any one of the few remaining companions of Mahomet, he left it to a committee of six to choose his successor. They rejected the claims of Ali, "the first of the disciples," and elected Othman, who was deemed the fitter for the office, on account of the fierceness of his counsels, and the sincerity of his devotion. His reign lasted ten years, during which the empire of the Saracens was extended beyond the Tigris, over large districts of Armenia and Mesopotamia. His lieutenants subdued the cities of Balk, Herat, Thous, and Nichabour, and pushed their conquests as far

as to the rapid Oxus, the western boundary of a part of the vast empire of Tartary.

Othman's imprudent desire to elevate his own family nearly lost to the empire one of its richest conquests. Amrou had secured the confidence and affection of the inhabitants of Egypt by the clemency, the justice and wisdom with which he conducted the government of their country. Othman recalled him, and Alexandria was immediately besieged by the Greeks. The danger led to a reinstatement of the deposed governor, and the opposing fleet and army speedily disappeared.

Another attempt was made during a second absence of the victorious general and governor, and enraged at this repetition of hostilities, Amrou declared that if God should give him the victory over the Syrians, he would raze the walls of the town, and make it as accessible as was the house of a courtezan. He did gain the victory, and Alexandria was accordingly dismantled. A terrible carnage of Egyptians and Greeks was being carried on, till under some impulse of mercy the Saracen general ordered it to cease, and a mosque dedicated to that virtue, and called by its name, commemorated for ages the spot on which the scimitar of destruction was sheathed.

Abdallah, the general, entrusted with command by Othman, was directed when the conquest of Egypt was secured, to turn the Arab arms towards Africa and the unknown regions of the west. On what provocation, except that of the ambitious and fanatical desire to render the religion and the empire of Mahometans universal, it would be difficult to conjecture. A painful march brought his troops to the walls of Tripoli, then and still a

considerable city, capital of a district of Barbary bearing its name; but the appearance of Gregory the Greek general with a large force, amounting to one hundred and twenty thousand, suspended the siege. The issue of the expedition was made to depend upon the result of a general engagement, which accordingly took place in the sandy plains not far distant from the city. For several days victory was doubtful; both sides fought with the most obstinate valour. At length by stratagem, as was usual with the Mussulmans, the question was decided in their favour. The Greek general was slain, thousands of his army were left dead upon the field, the rest fled to Sufetala, and Tripoli yielded on the first attack of the victorious Saracens. So great was the spoil of this victory, that every foot soldier of the Arabs is said to have gained for his share one thousand pieces of gold; each mounted soldier received twice as much; the officers and the caliph in proportion. A daughter of the Greek general, of incomparable beauty, had fought by his side; her courage and exhortations had animated the soldiers of her country, till she was at length taken prisoner, and led into the presence of Abdallah. According to the laws of Saracen war, she was the prize of him whose ingenuity and courage had ensured the victory. 66 Why do you not claim the rich reward of your conquest," said Abdallah. "I fight not," was the reply, "for ignoble motives, but for glory and religion." The prize, however, was forced upon him, and, what he valued much more, the office of communicating to the caliph the splendid success of the Saracen arms.

The Moslems were much less attached and obe

dient to Othman than to their former caliphs. They accused him of an undue partiality to his family, of appropriating the public money to the use of his friends, and of presumption in occupy-ing the seat of Mahomet in the pulpit, whereas Abubeker and Omar sat, one on the second, and the other on the third step below it. The provinces loudly complained of injustice, and the danger threatening his power was apparent in an assembling of a large body of insurgents, who encamped about a league from Medina, and despatched a haughty mandate to Othman, requiring him to execute justice or to vacate his throne.

Ayesha still lived to foment these quarrels, most probably because she wished some partisan of her own to be acknowledged as the successor of her revered husband. Though Othman yielded all the demands of the insurgents, they were not satisfied. False allegations were employed against him, when those which might have been proved were found to fail, and the unhappy caliph was besieged in his palace. For a short time the sons of Ali, and some lingering of regard for the sacred person of the prophet's successor protected him; but at length the palace was forced by the rebels, and Othman, while engaged in the study of the Koran, fell pierced with the daggers of his assailants.

This event occurred twenty-two years after Mahomet's death, as if to discover the internal weakness of an empire which had sprung up with such incredible celerity. Ali now ascended the throne, notwithstanding Ayesha's opposition, which most probably had kept him from it on each of the three former occasions; and as if a simple garb

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