It is not too much to say that any authentic knowledge of Greek history commences with the poems of Homer. These are the earliest documents which directly or indirectly can supply us with any real information on the subject. These immortal poems, which maintain an absolute supremacy in Greek literature, afford us the earliest glances of Hellenic history and manners. The Homeric narrative, indeed, may be mainly considered as pure invention, or indistinct legend; but there is no sufficient reason to doubt that the groundwork of the poem is historical, and that there was, really and truly, a siege of Troy. No reliance can be placed upon the details, which are of course presented only in a poetic

and traditional way. An examination of these poems furnishes us with a series of simple, vivid pictures, which tell us a great deal about the state of the Greeks in what is called the Heroic Age. We obtain distinct information on the subjects of manners, religion, knowledge, and the arts, and, in however imperfect a form, possess an initial chapter of Greek history.

Whatever may have been the previous migrations or revolutions, we now see a dominant race overspreading the land, who had probably displaced not long before the old Pelasgic population, which however had now grown incorporate with the invading race. We find the division into serfs and freemen, and among freemen the division into nobles and those of common rank. Every princely house traced its origin to some legendary deity. But the pre-eminence of the leader is chiefly seen to depend on his prowess in the field and his eloquence in the assembly. The State had its King, who was first chosen on account of his power or achievements, and in whose family the crown was more or less hereditary. But when we speak of the crown we must not forget the simple primitive character of this early royalty. The King took the command in war, and often acted both as priest and as judge. He took a due share in the division of the spoil, and also received a rich present from the booty before any regular division was made. There were no taxes, but he drew a considerable revenue from various kinds of presents. The King was never absolute. In the trial he is the chief judge, and in the council the chief speaker, but other nobles freely give their opinions, and these nobles themselves are often called kings, and in case of a vacancy may aspire to the chief supremacy. The King has his palace in the town, where the nobles also reside, and he has also his sequestered habitation in the country. No great social differences are observed. The Princess herself goes to the fountain to draw water, and she and her maidens together are employed in washing by the side of the stream. Hospitality is dispensed in the simplest and most hearty way. It is enough for the stranger that he is a stranger, to be received in the kindliest manner. The bath is provided for his refreshment. The best cheer

the mansion can afford is set before him. When he has eaten, drunk, and rested, his host asks him a few questions, rather with friendly interest than intrusive curiosity. Some of the questions bring before us a very primitive state of society. The strangers are asked whether they are roving over the sea as pirates or have any particular object; and neither those who put the question, nor those to whom the question is put, consider that an unfavourable suspicion is contained in such an inquiry. The fare and the feasting are simple. Men do not drink much wine, and what they drink is mixed with water. The harper sits at the banquet, and in the interludes of converse chants his strain. They then arise and go from the hall to dancing and games. Some performers are selected who exhibit remarkable feats. This simple kindly mode of life prevails throughout the community. The humblest cottager is hospitable. The slave is treated with indulgent kindness. The poor are held in especial pity, and even respect, and any unkindness shown to them will certainly be avenged by the powers who watch over the helpless. The suppliant is always respected, especially if he has placed himself on the hearth.

But there are dark shades in this pleasant picture. The Greek is affectionate, hospitable, and the very soul of chivalrous friendship. But he is quick-tempered and passionate, and places no limit to his cruelty and revenge. He will treacherously murder an enemy. He will give no quarter to a foe. He will slay a man on the slightest pretext. Nothing shows more cold-blooded cruelty than the treatment of captives. The authentic history of Thucydides confirms the facts which we obtain from Homer. Prisoners of war are sometimes reserved for ransom, possibly for exchange, but almost as a universal rule they are put to death in cold blood. There was not the slightest reverence or regard for the sanctity of human life. There was hardly any murder, however atrocious, for which a money-payment could not obtain an easy pardon. Yet there are frequent cases of barbarous punishment, for offences against the community, when the offender is stoned to death, or buried alive, or hurled down a precipice; at times a human victim is sacrificed

upon the altar. The utmost licentiousness of mind and manners prevails. St. Paul has drawn a fearful picture, and the delineation of the inspired apostle is not overcharged, of the frightful degradation of vice into which the heathen world fell. Even in its brightest dawn of history, which the poet is portraying in the most pleasing way, and when no notion of censure is present to the mind of the historian, we dimly perceive the moral evil that is not far off.

We find no system of law in the Heroic Age, either in the government of a state or in the relations of one state towards another. Still there were immemorial rights and usages; and disputes between individuals would be settled on the principles of natural equity. Commerce was carried on, and it would appear that the Phoenicians had a considerable trade at Greek ports. From this intercourse with Phoenicia the Greeks derived their knowledge of an alphabet. But, in the Greek himself it was more honourable to acquire wealth by war and rapine than by the mild arts of peace. Exchanges must have been made in kind as there is no mention of money. Homer mentions many circumstances that betoken luxury and refinement, but we must remember that "the poet has treasures at his disposal, which, as they cost him nothing, he may scatter with an unsparing hand." Still, he mentions gold and silver, ivory and amber, sculptured shields, embossed breastplates, statues and ornaments, and wonderful effects of colour and form. The imagination of the poet must certainly have had materials to work upon. There are still ruins of ancient cities belonging to this epoch which attest the size and magnificence of its architectural structures. Homer is generally supposed to have been an Asiatic Greek, and he was probably acquainted with a more advanced civilization than was known to his countrymen before the period of the Trojan war. The skilful artificer, as the carpenter, was quite a man of rank, as also was the physician. The bard was a person of the very highest distinction, and all young princes were taught whatever could then be learned of music and poetry.

The Homeric geography is of the most curious and limited kind. The vivid stars of the east, in their

clusterings, risings, and settings, would give some help to the sailor, but he would lose his course should the night be overcast; his ordinary sailing would be from headland to headland, and from island to island. Their actual knowledge did not extend beyond the shores of Greece and Asia Minor and the beautiful islands of the Egean. They appear also to have had some glimpses of knowledge respecting the south of Italy and Sicily. They thought that the western sea expanded into an unknown waste of waters, where the sun and stars sank and were quenched. So the poet represents Ulysses as saying,

Homer appears to have had some knowledge of the south and east, and his descriptions of places, though full of marvels, have generally some foundation in truth. But the north and west are wrapt in obscurity and darkness. It was conceived that the earth was a vast level plain, except so far as it was diversified by heights and hollows, girt by the ocean which was represented as a deep, broad river, from which all mundane streams and fountains took their rise, and separating the inhabited earth from the supernatural region of darkness and death. The heaven was considered to be a solid vault of metal, and the earth a vast hollow, a receptacle for departed spirits, and in its deepest part was placed the pit of Tartarus, made durable and safe by gates of iron and a floor of brass.

The Greek mythology must have exercised a dire effect upon the Greek religion. The gods were represented as partaking of all the passions and frailties of men, and even Greeks themselves were at times found who protested against the impiety and vice with which these descriptions abounded. Not deities alone did the ancient Greek address, but the divine air, the swiftwinged breezes, the fountains of earth, the all-seeing, allhearing sun. "The teeming earth, the quickening sun, the restless sea, the rushing stream, the irresistible storm, every display of superhuman might, rouse a distinct