the assassins' hands and feet should be hung up over the pool of Hebron, which was probably a place of great resort. Among the ancient Chaldæans, cutting off the nose and ears was a common punishment of adulterers. To this the prophet Ezekiel alludes. (xxiii. 25.)

12. CRUCIFIXION was a punishment which the ancients inflicted only on the most notorious criminals and malefactors. The cross was made of two beams, either crossing at the top at right angles, or in the middle of their length like the letter X. There was, besides, a piece on the centre of the transverse beam, to which was attached the accusation, or statement of the culprit's crime; together with a piece of wood that projected from the middle, on which the person sat as on a kind of saddle, and by which the whole body was supported. Justin Martyr, in his dialogue with Trypho the Jew, gives this description; and it is worthy of note, that he lived in the former part of the second century of the Christian æra, before the punishment of the cross was abolished. The cross on which our Lord suffered was of the former kind, being thus represented on all ancient monuments, coins, and crosses.

Crucifixion is one of the most cruel and excruciating deaths, which the art of ingeniously tormenting and extinguishing life ever devised. The naked body of the criminal was fastened to the upright beam by nailing or tying the feet to it, and on the transverse beam by nailing and sometimes tying the hands to it. Those members, being the grand instruments of motion, are provided with a greater quantity of nerves, which (especially those of the hands) are peculiarly sensible. As the nerves are the instruments of all sensation or feeling, wounds in the parts where they abound must be peculiarly painful; especially when inflicted with such rude instruments as large nails, forcibly driven through the exquisitely delicate tendons, nerves, and bones of those parts. The horror of this punishment will appear, when it is considered that the person was permitted to hang (the whole weight of his body being borne up by his nailed hands and feet, and by the projecting piece in the middle of the cross,) until he perished through agony and want of food. There are instances of crucified persons living in this exquisite torture several days." "The wise and adorable Author of our being has formed and constituted the fabric of our bodies in such a merciful manner, that nothing violent is lasting. Friendly death sealed the eyes of those wretches generally in three days. Hunger, thirst, and acute pain dismissed them from their in

1 Harmer's Observations, vol. i. pp. 501, 502. This kind of punishment was in use in the time of Mohammed, who introduces Pharaoh as saying, I will surely cut off your hands and your feet on the opposite sides; that is, first the right hand, and then the left foot; next the left hand, and then the right foot. Koran, ch. xx. 74. and xxvi. 49. (Sale's translation, pp. 259. 304. 4to. edit.) See additional examples of such mutilations in Burder's Oriental Literature, vol. ii. p. 186. Wilson's Travels in Egypt and the Holy Land, pp. 375-377.

2 Dr. Adam Clarke on Matt. xxvii. 35. For the remainder of this account of the crucifixion the author is indebted to Dr. Lardner's Credibility of the Gospel History, part i. book i. c. 7. §§ ix.-xvii., and Dr. Harwood's Introduction to the New Testament, vol. ii. pp. 336-353.

tolerable sufferings. The rites of sepulture were denied them. Their dead bodies were generally left on the crosses on which they were first suspended, and became a prey to every ravenous beast and carnivorous bird.1

(1.) "Crucifixion obtained among several ancient nations, the Egyptians, Persians, Greeks, and Carthaginians. The Carthaginians generally adjudged to this death their unfortunate and unsuccessful commanders. There are many unhappy instances of this. They crucified Bomilcar5, whom Justin calls their king, when they detected his intended design of joining Agathocles. They erected a cross in the midst of the forum, on which they suspended him, and from which, with a great and unconquered spirit, amidst all his sufferings, he bitterly inveighed against them, and upbraided them with all the black and atrocious crimes they had lately perpetrated. But this manner of executing criminals prevailed most among the Romans. It was generally a servile punishment, and chiefly inflicted on vile, worthless, and incorrigible slaves. In reference to this, the Apostle, describing the condescension of Jesus, and his submission to this most opprobrious death, represents him as taking upon himself the form of a servant (Phil. ii. 7, 8.), and becoming obedient to death, even the death of the cross.

(2.) "It was universally and deservedly reputed the most shameful and ignominious death to which a wretch could be exposed. In such an exit were comprised every idea and circumstance of odium, disgrace, and public scandal." Hence the Apostle magnifies and extols the great love of our Redeemer, in that while we were yet sinners, Christ died for us, and for the joy set before him, endured the cross, despising the shame (Rom. v. 8.; Heb. xii. 2.); disregarding every circumstance of public indignity and infamy with which such a death was loaded. "It was from the idea they connected with such a death, that the Greeks treated the apostles with the last contempt and pity for publicly embarking in the cause, of a person who had been brought to this reproachful and dishonourable death by his own countrymen. The preaching of the cross was to them foolishness (1 Cor. i. 23.); the promulgation of a system of religion that had been taught by a person who, by a national act, had publicly suffered the punishment

Juvenal, Sat. 14. ver. 77, 78.

Pasces in cruce corvos. Horat. Epist. lib. i. epist. 16. ver. 48. Vultur, jumento et canibus, crucibusque relictis Ad fœtus properat, partemque cadaveris affert. 2 Thucydides, lib. i. sect. 110. p. 71. edit. Duker. Justin, treating of the affairs of Egypt, says: Concursu multitudinis et Agathocles occiditur, et mulieres in ultionem Eurydices patibulis suffiguntur. Justin, lib. xxx. cap. 2. p. 578. edit. Gronovii. Herodoti Erato. p. 451. edit. Wesseling, 1763. See also Thalia, p. 260. and Polyhymnia, p. 617.

Alexander crucified two thousand Tyrians. Triste deinde spectaculum victoribus ira præbuit regis; duo millia, in quibus occidendi defecerat rabies, crucibus adfixi per ingens litoris spatium, dependerunt. Q. Curtii, lib. iv. cap. 4. p. 187. edit. Snakenburgh, 1724. See also Plutarch in Vita Alex. and Justin, lib. xviii. cap. 3.

Duces bella pravo consilio gerentes, etiamsi prospera fortuna subsecuta esset, cruci tamen suffigebantur. Valerius Maximus, lib. ii. cap. 7. p. 191. edit. Torren. Leidæ, 1726. 5 Bomilcar rex Poenorum in medio foro a Pœnis patibulo suffixus est. De Summa veluti de tribunali, Panorum scelera concionaretur. Justin, lib. xxii. cap. 7. p. 505. ed. Gronovii.

cruce,

• Pone crucem servo. Juvenal, Sat. 6. ver. 218.

2

and death of the most useless and abandoned slave, was, in their ideas, the last infatuation; and the preaching of Christ crucified, publishing in the world a religion whose founder suffered on a cross, appeared the last absurdity and madness. The Heathens looked upon the attachment of the primitive Christians to a religion whose publisher had come to such an end, as an undoubted proof of their utter ruin, that they were destroying their interest, comfort, and happiness, by adopting such a system founded on such a dishonourable circumstance. The same inherent scandal and ignominy had crucifixion in the estimation of the Jews. They indeed annexed more complicated wretchedness to it, for they esteemed the miscreant who was adjudged to such an end not only to be abandoned of men, but forsaken of God. He that is hanged, says the law, is accursed of God. (Deut. xxi. 23.) Hence St. Paul, representing to the Galatians the grace of Jesus, who released us from that curse to which the law of Moses devoted us, by being made a curse for us, by submitting to be treated for our sakes as an execrable malefactor, to show the horror of such a death as Christ voluntarily endured, adds, It is written in the law, Cursed is every one that hangeth on a tree! (Galat. iii. 13.) And from this express declaration of the law of Moses concerning persons thus executed, we may account for that aversion the Jews discovered against Christianity, and perceive the reason of what St. Paul asserts, that their preaching of Christ crucified was to the Jews a stumbling-block. (1 Cor. i. 23.) The circumstance of the cross caused them to stumble at the very gate of Christianity.3

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(3.) The several circumstances related by the four evangelists as accompanying the crucifixion of Jesus were conformable to the Roman custom in such executions; and, frequently occurring in ancient authors, do not only reflect beauty and lustre upon these passages, but happily corroborate and confirm the narrative of the sacred penmen." We will exhibit before our readers a detail of these as they are specified by the evangelists.

1 "From this circumstance," says Justin Martyr, "the Heathens are fully convinced of our madness for giving the second place after the immutable and eternal God, and Father of all, to a person who was crucified!" Justin Martyr, Apol. 2. pp. 60, 61. edit. Paris, 1636. Et qui hominem summo supplicio pro facinore punitum, et crucis ligna feralia ceremonias fabulatur, congruentia perditis sceleratisque tribuit altaria: ut id colant quod merentur. Minucius Felix, p. 57. edit. Davis. Cantab. 1712. Nam quod religioni nostræ hominem noxium et crucem ejus adscribitis, longe de vicinia veritatis erratis. Min. Felix. p. 147.

2 That this was the sentiment of the Heathens concerning the Christians, St. Paul informs us, and he exhorts the Philippians not to be discouraged by it. Philip. i. 28. Not intimidated in anything by your adversaries; for though they look upon your attachment to the Gospel as an undoubted proof of your utter ruin, yet to you it is a demonstration of your salvation — a salvation which hath God for its author.

Trypho the Jew every where affects to treat the Christian religion with contempt, on account of the crucifixion of its author. He ridicules its professors for centering all their hopes in a man who was crucified! Dialog cum Tryphone, p. 33. The person whom you call your Messiah, says he, incurred the last disgrace and ignominy, for he fell under the greatest curse in the law of God; he was crucified! p. 90. Again, we must hesitate, says Trypho, with regard to our believing a person, who was so ignominiously crucified, being the Messiah; for it is written in the law, Cursed is every one who is hanged on a cross. Justin Martyr, Dialog. cum Tryphone, p. 271. edit. Jebb. London, 1719. See also pages 272. 283. 378. 392. See also Eusebii Hist. Eccl. pp. 171. 744. Cantab.

Every mark of infamy that malice could suggest was accumulated on the head of our Redeemer. While he was in the high priest's house they did spit in his face and buffeted him, and others smote him with the palms of their hands, saying, Prophesy unto us, thou Christ, who is he that smote thee? (Matt. xxvi. 67, 68.; Mark xiv. 65.) Pilate, hearing that our Lord was of Galilee, sent him to Herod; and before he was dismissed by him, Herod, with his men of war, set him at nought; and mocked him, and arrayed him in a gorgeous robe. (Luke xxiii. 11.) He was insulted and mocked by the soldiers, when Pilate ordered him to be scourged the first time; that by that lesser punishment he might satisfy the Jews and save his life, as is related by St. John. After Pilate had condemned him to be crucified, the like indignities were repeated by the soldiers, as we are assured by two evangelists. (Matt. xxvii. 27-31.; Mark xv. 16-20.) And they stripped him, and put on him a scarlet robe. And when they had platted a crown of thorns, they put it on his head, and a reed in his right hand: and they bowed the knee before him, and mocked him, saying, Hail! king of the Jews. And they spit upon him, and took the reed, and smote him on the head.

These are tokens of contempt and ridicule which were in use at that time. Dio, among the other indignities offered to Sejanus the favourite of Tiberius (in whose reign our Saviour was crucified), as they were carrying him from the senate-house to prison, particularly mentions this," That they struck him on the head." But there is one instance of ridicule which happened so soon after this time, and has so great a resemblance to that to which our Saviour was exposed, that it deserves to be stated at length. Caligula, the successor of Tiberius, had, in the very beginning of his reign, given Agrippa the tetrarchy of his uncle Philip, being about the fourth part of his grandfather Herod's dominions, with the right of wearing a diadem or crown. When he was setting out from Rome to make a visit to his people, the emperor advised him to go by Alexandria as the best way. When he came thither he kept himself very private: but the Alexandrians having got intelligence of his arrival there, and of the design of his journey, were filled with envy, as Philo says, at the thoughts of a Jew having the title of king. They had recourse to various expedients, in order to manifest their indignation: one was the following:-" There was," says Philo", "one Carabas, a sort of distracted fellow, that in all seasons of the year went naked about the

1 Various opinions have been offered concerning the species of thorn, intended by the sacred writers. Bartholin wrote an elaborate dissertation De Spinea Corona, and Lydius has collected the opinions of several writers in his Florum Sparsio ad Historiam Passionis Jesu Christi. (Analect. pp. 13-17.) The intelligent traveller Hasselquist says, that the naba or nabka of the Arabians "is in all probability the tree which afforded the crown of thorns put on the head of Christ: it grows very commonly in the East. This plant was very fit for the purpose; for it has many SMALL AND SHARP SPINES, which are well adapted to give pain. The crown might easily be made of these soft, round, and pliant branches: and what in my opinion seems to be the greatest proof is, that the leaves very much resemble those of ivy, as they are of a very deep green. Perhaps the enemies of Christ would have a plant somewhat resembling that with which emperors and generals were used to be. crowned, that there might be calumny even in the punishment." Hasselquist's Voyages and Travels in the Levant, pp. 288, 289.

In Flacc. p. 970.

streets. He was somewhat between a madman and a fool, the common jest of boys and other idle people. This wretch they brought into the theatre, and placed him on a lofty seat, that he might be conspicuous to all; then they put a thing made of paper on his head for a crown, the rest of his body they covered with a mat instead of a robe, and for a sceptre one put into his hand a little piece of a reed which he had just taken up from the ground. Having thus given him a mimic royal dress, several young fellows with poles on their shoulders came and stood on each side of him as his guards. Then there came people toward him, some to pay their homage to him, others to ask justice of him, and some to know his will and pleasure concerning affairs of state; and in the crowd were loud and confused acclamations of Maris, Maris; that being, as they say, the Syriac word for Lord, thereby intimating whom they intended to ridicule by all this mock show: Agrippa being a Syrian, and king of a large country in Syria."

When Pilate had pronounced the sentence of condemnation on our Lord, and publicly adjudged him to be crucified, he gave orders that he should be scourged. Then Pilate took Jesus and scourged him. And when he had scourged Jesus, says another of the evangelists, he delivered him to be crucified. Among the Romans, scourging was always inflicted previously to crucifixion. Many examples might be produced of this custom. Let the following suffice. Livy, speaking of the fate of those slaves who had confederated and taken up arms against the state, says, that many of them were slain, many taken prisoners, and others, after they had been whipped or scourged', were suspended on crosses. Philo, relating the cruelties which Flaccus the Roman prefect exercised upon the Jews of Alexandria, says, that after they were mangled and torn with scourges in the theatres, they were fastened to crosses. Josephus also informs us, that at the siege of Jerusalem great numbers of the Jews were crucified, after they had been previously whipped, and had suffered every wanton cruelty.3

"After they had inflicted this customary flagellation, the evangelist informs us that they obliged our Lord to carry to the place of execution the cross, or, at least, the transverse beam of it, on which he was to be suspended. Lacerated, therefore, with the stripes and bruises he had received, faint with the loss of blood, his spirits exhausted by the cruel insults and blows that were given him when they invested him with robes of mock royalty, and oppressed with the incumbent weight of his cross; in these circumstances our Saviour was urged along the road. We doubt not but in this passage to Calvary every indignity was offered him. This was usual. Our Lord, fatigued and spent with the treatment he had received, could

'Multi occisi, multi capti, alii verberati crucibus affixi. Livii, lib. xxxiii. 36.

2 Philo in Flacc. p. 529. edit. Mangey. See also pages 527, 528. of the same edition. The Roman custom was to scourge before all executions. The magistrates bringing them out into the forum, after they had scourged them according to custom, they struck off their heads. Polybii Hist. lib. i. p. 10. tom. i. edit. Gronovii. 1670.

Josephus de Bello Jud. lib. v. c. 2. p. 353. Havercamp. Bell, Judaic. lib. ii. cap. 14. § 9. p. 182. Haverc.

Vid. Justi Lipsii de Cruce, lib. ii. cap. 6. p. 1180. Vesaliæ.