sisted so long, had not the priests by whom it was managed contrived to secure the devotion of the multitudes by pretending that certain divinities uttered oracles. The researches of enlightened travellers have laid open the contrivances by which these frauds were managed, at least in Greece. Various were the means by which the credulity of the people was imposed upon. Sometimes they charmed serpents, -extracted their poison, and thus rendered them harmless, -a practice to which there are frequent allusions in the Old Testament; and it must have been a gainful and an established traffic.

X. Moses has enumerated seven different sorts of DIVINERS into futurity, whom the Israelites were prohibited from consulting (Deut. xviii. 10, 11.): viz. 1. Those who used divination, that is, who endeavoured to penetrate futurity by auguries, using lots, &c.; — 2. Observers of times, those who pretended to foretell future events by present occurrences, and who predicted political or physical changes from the aspects of the planets, eclipses, motion of the clouds, &c.;3. Enchanters, either those who charmed serpents, or those who drew auguries from inspecting the entrails of beasts, observing the flights of birds, &c.;-4. Witches, those who pretended to bring down certain celestial influences to their aid by means of herbs, drugs, perfumes, &c.;--5. Charmers, those who used spells for the purposes of divination;-6. Consulters with familiar spirits, Pythonesses, those who pretended to inquire by means of one spirit to get oracular answers from another of a superior order ; — and, 7. Wizards, or necromancers, those who (like the witch at Endor) professed to evoke the dead, in order to learn from them the secrets of the invisible world.

Four kinds of Divination are particularly mentioned in sacred history, viz. by the cup,- by arrows, by inspecting the livers of

slaughtered animals, and by the staff.

1. Divination by the cup appears to have been the most ancient: it certainly prevailed in Egypt in the time of Joseph (Gen. xliv. 5.); and it has from time immemorial been prevalent among the Asiatics, who have a tradition (the origin of which is lost in the lapse of ages) that there was a cup which had passed successively into the hands of different potentates, and which possessed the strange property of representing in it the whole world, and all the things which were then doing in it. The Persians to this day call it the Cup of Jemsheed, from a very ancient king of Persia of that name, whom late historians and poets have confounded with Bacchus, Solomon, Alexander the Great, &c. This cup, filled with the elixir of immortality, they say, was discovered when digging the foundations of Persepolis. To this cup the Persian poets have numerous allusions; and to the intelligence supposed to have been received from it they ascribe the

See Dr. Clarke's Travels, vol. vi. pp. 479, 480.; also vol. iii. p. 298.

2 We have no reason to infer that Joseph practised divination by the cup; although, according to the superstition of those times, supernatural influence might be attributed to his cup. And as the whole transaction related in Gen. xliv. was merely intended to deceive his brethren for a short time, he might as well affect divination by his cup, as affect to believe that they had stolen it.

great prosperity of their ancient monarchs, as by it they understood all events, past, present, and future. Many of the Mohammedan princes and governors affect still to have information of futurity by means of a cup. Thus when Mr. Norden was at Dehr or Derri in the farthest part of Egypt, in a very dangerous situation, from which he and his company endeavoured to extricate themselves by exerting great spirit, a spiteful and powerful Arab in a threatening way told one of their people, whom they had sent to him, that he knew what sort of people they were, that he had consulted his cup, and had found by it that they were those of whom one of their prophets had said, that Franks would come in disguise, and passing everywhere, examine the state of the country, and afterwards bring over a great number of other Franks, conquer the country, and exterminate all.' It was precisely the same thing that Joseph meant when he talked of divining by his cup.2

Julius Serenus tells us, that the method of divining by the cup among the Abyssinians, Chaldees, and Egyptians, was to fill it first with water, then to throw into it their plates of gold and silver, together with some precious stones, whereon were engraven certain characters; and after that the persons who came to consult the oracle used certain forms of incantation, and so, calling upon the devil, received their answers several ways, - sometimes by articulate sounds, sometimes by the characters which were in the cup arising upon the surface of the water, and by this arrangement forming the answer; and many times by the visible appearing of the persons themselves about whom the oracle was consulted. Cornelius Agrippa tells us likewise, that the manner of some was to pour melted wax into a cup containing water, which wax would range itself into order, and so form answers, according to the questions proposed.*

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2. Divination by arrows was an ancient method of presaging future events. Ezekiel (xxi. 21.) informs us that Nebuchadnezzar, when marching against Zedekiah and the king of the Ammonites, and coming to the head of two ways, mingled his arrows in a quiver, that he might thence divine in what direction to pursue his march: and that he consulted teraphim, and inspected the livers of beasts, in order to determine his resolution. Jerome, in his commentary on this passage, says that "the manner of divining by arrows was thus:

They wrote on several arrows the names of the cities against which they intended to make war, and then putting them promiscuously all together into a quiver, they caused them to be drawn out in the manner of lots; and that city whose name was on the arrow first drawn out was the first they assaulted." This method of divination was practised by the idolatrous Arabs, and prohibited by Mohammed",

Trav. vol. ii. p. 150.

De occult. Philos. 1. i. cap. 57.

2 Harmer, vol. ii. p. 475.

Dr. A. Clarke on Gen. xliv. 5. Burder's Oriental Customs, vol. i. p. 54.

On this subject see some curious information in the Fragments supplementary to Calmet, No. 179.

Koran, ch. v. 4. (Sale's translation, p. 94. 4to. edit.) In his preliminary discourse, Mr. Sale states that the arrows, used by the idolatrous Arabs for this purpose, were destitute of heads or feathers, and were kept in the temple of some idol, in whose presence

and was likewise used by the ancient Greeks, and other nations.'

3. Divination by inspecting the liver of slaughtered animals was another mode of ascertaining future events, much practised by the Greeks and Romans, by the former of whom it was termed 'HTатоOKоTía, or looking into the liver. This word subsequently became a general term for divination by inspecting the entrails of sacrifices, because the liver was the first and principal part observed for this purpose. To this method of divination there is an allusion in Ezekiel xxi. 21.2

4. Rabdomancy, or divination by the staff, is alluded to by the prophet Hosea (iv. 12.). It is supposed to have been thus performed: The person consulting measured his staff by spans, or by the length of his finger, saying, as he measured, "I will go, or I will not go; I will do such a thing, or, I will not do it:" and as the last span fell out so he determined. Cyril and Theophylact, however, give a different account of the matter. They say that it was performed by erecting two sticks, after which they murmured forth a certain charm, and then, according as the sticks fell, backwards or forwards, towards the right or left, they gave advice in any affair.3

In the later period of the Jewish history, we meet with many persons among the Jews, who pretended to be sorcerers. This class of persons dealt in incantations and divinations, and boasted of a power, in consequence of their deep science, and by means of certain rites, to evoke the spirits of the dead from their gloomy abodes, and compel them to disclose information on subjects beyond the reach of

they were consulted. Seven such arrows were kept in the temple of Mecca; but generally in divination they made use of three only, on one of which was written My LORD hath commanded me, -on another, My LORD hath forbidden me,—and the third was blank. If the first was drawn, they regarded it as an approbation of the enterprise in question; if the second, they made a contrary conclusion; but if the third happened to be drawn, they mixed them and drew over again, till a decisive answer was given by one of the others. These divining arrows were generally consulted before any thing of moment was undertaken. -as when a man was about to marry, to undertake a journey, or the like. (Sale's Prel. Disc. pp 126, 127.)

Potter's Antiquities of Greece, vol. i. pp. 359, 360.

2 Ibid. vol. i. pp. 339, 340. The practice of "divination from the liver is very old, and was practised by the Greeks and Romans, till Christianity banished it, together with the gods of Olympus. In Eschylus, Prometheus boasts of having taught man the division of the entrails, if smooth, and of a clear colour, to be agreeable to the gods; also the various forms of the gall and the liver." (Stolberg's History of Religion, vol. iii. p. 436.) Among the Greeks and Romans, as soon as a victim was sacrificed, the entails were examined. They began with the liver, which was considered the chief seat, or, as Philostratus expresses himself (Life of Apollonius, viii. 7. § 15.), as the prophesying tripod of all divination. If it had a fine, natural, red colour; if it was healthy, and without spots; if it was large and double; if the lobes turned outwards; they promised themselves the best success in their undertakings: but it portended evil if the liver was dry, or had a band between the parts, or had no lobes. It was also considered an unfortunate omen if the liver was injured by a cut in killing the victim. (Matern. of Cilano, Roman Antiquities, vol. ii. p. 164.) Rosenmüller. Burder's Oriental Literature, vol. ii. p. 185.

Selden de Diis Syris. Synt. 1. cap 2. p. 28. Godwin's Moses and Aaron, p. 216. Pococke and Newcome, in loc. Potter's Antiq. of Greece, vol. i. p. 359. (Edinb. 1804.) Josephus relates that, at the period above referred to, there were numerous sorcerers and deceivers, who, pretending to show wonders and prodigies, seduced great numbers of people after them into the wilderness. (Ant. Jud. lib. xx. c. 8. § 6. Bell. Jud, lib. iv, c. 13. § 4.)

the human powers: of this description, probably, was the scrcerer Bar-Jesus, mentioned in Acts xiii. 6-11. There also were others, such as Simon the sorcerer (Acts viii. 9.); who having some knowledge of natural philosophy and astrology, abused that knowledge and deceived the common people by pretending to foretell future events, from the motions and appearances of the planets and stars, and to cure certain diseases by repeating certain phrases, &c. So prevalent was the practice of sorcery among the Jews, that many of their elders, judges, or rabbies, are said to have attained such a proficiency in magic or sorcery, as to surpass even those who made it their profession.2

The prevalence of magic among the heathen is too well known to require any proofs. Pythagoras and other distinguished Greek philosophers took no small pains to attain the knowledge of this art. The inhabitants of Ephesus in particular were distinguished for their magical skill; and it was no small triumph of the Gospel that many of the Christian converts at Ephesus, who had previously used curious arts (Tà Tepiɛpya, which word is used by Greek writers to denote magical arts, incantations, &c.) brought their books together and burnt them before all men. (Acts xix. 19.) So celebrated was the city of Ephesus for the magic art, that some particular forms of incantation derived their names from thence, and were called 'Epéσia Tpáμμаτa, or Ephesian Letters. They appear to have been amulets inscribed with strange characters, which were worn about the person for the purpose of curing diseases, expelling demons, and preserving individuals from evils of different kinds. The "books" above mentioned were such as taught the science, mode of forming, use, &c. of these charms.1

SECT. II.

ON THE STATE OF RELIGION AMONG THE JEWS, IN THE TIME OF JESUS CHRIST.

PREVIOUSLY to the Babylonish captivity there are no vestiges of the existence of any sect among the Jews. Devoted to the study of their law and to the ceremonies of their religion, they neglected those curious studies which were esteemed among other nations. The temple of Jehovah and the houses of the prophets were their principal schools; in which they were taught how to serve the Lord and to

1 Robinson's Gr. Lex. voce Máyos.

2 If any credit may be given to the Talmuds, twenty-four of the school of rabbi Judah were killed by sorcery; and eighty women sorceresses were hanged in one day by Simon ben Shetah. So greatly did the practice of this art prevail among them that skill in it was required as a necessary qualification for a person to be chosen a member of their councils, whether that of seventy-one or those of twenty-three, in order that he might be the better able to try and judge the accused, whether they were really guilty of sorcery or not. Lightfoot's Works, vol. i. p. 371., vol. ii. p. 244. (folio edit.), where the passages from the Talmuds are given.

Biscoe on the Acts, vol. i. pp. 290–293.

Dr. A. Clarke on Acts viii. 17., where some curious information relative to the Ephesian letters is collected from the lexicographers, Suidas and Hesychius.

observe the ordinances which he had commanded. After the captivity we do not meet with any traces of sects among them until the time of the Maccabean princes; when it should seem that the Jewish literati, in imitation of the sects of the Grecian philosophers, became divided in their opinions, and composed the three celebrated sects of the Pharisees, Sadducees, and Essenes. As these sects are frequently mentioned in the New Testament, it is proposed in this section to give an account of their origin and tenets, together with those of the Herodians, who are repeatedly mentioned by Jesus Christ, and of some other minor denominations of religious parties which were in existence during the period of time comprised in the New Testament history.1

§ 1. Account of the Jewish Sects mentioned in the New Testament.

I. The PHARISEES were the most numerous and powerful sect of the Jews. The precise time when they first appeared is not known: but, as Josephus mentions the Pharisees, Sadducees, and Essenes, as distinct sects, in the reign of Jonathan (B. C. 144-139), it is manifest that they must have been in existence for some time. Calmet is of opinion that their origin cannot be carried higher than the year of the world 3820, corresponding with the year 184 before the Christian æra. They derived their name from the Hebrew verb (PHARASH) to separate; because they professed an uncommon separation from the apparel and customs of the world to the study of the law, and an extraordinary devotion to God and sanctity of life, beyond all other men. Hence one of them is represented as thanking God that he was not as other men are; and St. Paul, in his masterly apology before king Agrippa, terms them ȧkpißeσтáτn alpeois, the most rigorous sect, in our version rendered the most straitest sect. (Acts xxvi. 5.) They were not restricted to any particular family or class of men: there were Pharisees of every tribe, family, and condition. The credit which they had acquired by their reputation for knowledge and sanctity of life early rendered them formidable to the Maccabæan sovereigns; while they were held in such esteem and veneration by the people, that they may be almost said to have given what direction they pleased to public affairs. They boasted that from their accurate

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The authorities principally consulted for this section are Pritii Introductio in Lectionem Novi Testamenti, cc. 33, 34. De Statu Religionis Judæorum tempore Christi, pp 446-471. Calmet's Dissertation sur les Sectes des Juifs, Dissert. tom. i. pp. 711— Godwin's Moses and Aaron, and Jenning's Jewish Antiquities, book i. ch. 10-13. Schulzii Archæologia Biblica, pp. 170-180. Carpzovii Antiquitates Hebr. Gentis, pp. 173 -247. Pictet's Théologie Chrétienne, tom. i. pp. 627-630, and tom. iii. pp. 103–117. Jahn, Archæol. Bibl. §§ 316-320. and Ackermann, Archæol. Bibl. §§ 305-311. Beausobre's and L'Enfant's Introd. (Bp. Watson's Tracts, vol. iii. pp. 184-192.)

2 Ant. Jud. lib. xiii. c. 5. § 9.

The high reputation and influence of the Pharisees are strikingly illustrated by the following anecdote:- When Alexander Jannæus lay on his death-bed, about eighty years before the Christian æra, his queen Alexandra having expressed great anxiety on account of the exposed state in which herself and sons would be left, the dying monarch recommended her to court the Pharisees, and delegate part of her power to them. Alexandra followed this advice; and the Pharisees, availing themselves of the opportunity, made themselves masters of the government, and disposed of every thing as they pleased. Josephus, Ant. Jud. lib. xiii. c. 15. § 5. c. 16. § 1. Bell. Jud. lib. i. c. 4.