are very agreeable to the eye as they remain green throughout the winter) have caused it to be represented as the symbol of a numerous progeny, a blessing which was ascribed to the peculiar favour of God. (Psal. lii. 8., cxxviii. 3. ; Jer. xi. 16.; Hos. xiv. 6.) The oil, extracted from it by a press, enabled the Jews to carry on an extensive commerce with the Tyrians (Ezek. xxvii. 17. compared with 1 Kings v. 11.); they also sent presents of oil to the kings of Egypt. (Hos. xii. 1.) The berries of the olive tree were sometimes plucked or carefully shaken off by the hand before they were ripe. (Isa. xvii. 6., xxiv. 13.; Deut. xxiv. 20.) It appears from Mic. vi. 15. that the presses for extracting the oil were worked with the feet; the best and purest oil, in Exod. xxvii. 20. termed pure olive-oil beaten, was that obtained by only beating and squeezing the olives, without subjecting them to the press. Among the judgments with which God threatened the Israelites for their sins, it was denounced, that though they had olive trees through all their coasts, yet they should not anoint themselves with the oil, for the olive should cast her fruit (Deut. xxviii. 40.); being blasted (as the Jerusalem Targum explains it) in the very blossom, the buds should drop off for want of rain, or the fruit should be eaten with worms. Maimonides observes', that the idolaters in those countries pretended by certain magical arts to preserve all manner of fruit, so that the worms should not gnaw the vines, nor either buds or fruits fall from the trees (as he relates their words out of one of their books): in order, therefore, that he might deter the Israelites from all idolatrous practices, Moses pronounces that they should draw upon themselves those very punishments, which they endeavoured by such means to avoid. The ancient Hebrews were very fond of GARDENS, which are frequently mentioned in the Sacred Writings, and derive their appellations from the prevalence of certain trees; as the garden of nuts and of pomegranates. (Sol. Song vi. 11., iv. 13.) The modern inhabitants of the East take equal delight in gardens with the ancient Hebrews, on account of the refreshing shade and delicious fruits which they afford, and also because the air is cooled by the waters of which their gardens are never allowed to be destitute. (1 Kings xxi. 2. ; 2 Kings XXV. 4.; Eccles. ii. 5, 6.; John xviii. 1., xix. 41.) The Jews were greatly attached to gardens, as places of burial: hence they frequently built sepulchres in them. (2 Kings xxi. 18.; Mark xv. 46.) A pleasant region is called a garden of the Lord, or of God, that is, a region extremely pleasant. See examples in Gen. xiii. 10., Isa. li. 3., and Ezek. xxxi. 8.2 VIII. The sacred poets derive many beautiful ALLUSIONS and IMAGES from the rural and domestic economy of the Jews; and as the same pursuits were cherished and followed by them during the manifestation of our Redeemer, "it is natural to imagine that in the 1 More Nevoch. p. 3. c. 37. 2 Ikenii Antiquitates Hebr. pp. 583-589. Pareau, Antiq. Hebr. pp. 406-411. Jahn et Ackermann, Archæol. Bibl. §§ 57-70. writings of Jews there must occur frequent allusions to the implements and arts of agriculture, and to those rustic occupations which in general formed the study and exercise of this nation. Hence the beautiful images and apt similitudes in the following passages: - No one having put his hand to the PLOUGH and looking back, is fit for the kingdom of God. Ye are God's HUSBANDRY, or cultivated field.'-A workman that needeth not to be ashamed, rightly DIVIDING2 the word of truth. Wherefore lay apart all filthiness and superfluity of naughtiness, and receive with meekness the ENGRAFTED word. - Whatsoever a man SOWETH, that shall he REAP: he that SOWETH to the flesh-lives a sensual life-shall from the flesh REAP destruction, but he that soWETH to the spirit-lives a rational life-shall from the spirit REAP everlasting life. - Consider the ravens, they sow not, neither do they REAP, or gather into barns, yet your heavenly Father feedeth them. I am the good SHEPHERD, and know my SHEEP, and am known of mine. - Fear not, LITTLE FLOCK, it is your Father's good pleasure to give you the kingdom. How striking is the parable of the sower, which, by seed, scattered promiscuously and in every direction by an husbandman, and meeting a various fate, according to the respective nature of the soil into which it fell, represents the different reception which Gospel doctrine would experience in the world, according to the different dispositions and principles of that mind into which it was admitted! He that soweth the GOOD SEED, is the Son of Man; the FIELD is the world; the GOOD SEED are the children of the kingdom; the TARES are the children of the wicked one; the enemy that soWED them is the devil; the HARVEST is the end of the world; and the REAPERS are the angels. As therefore the TARES are gathered and burnt in the fire, so shall it be in the end of the world. Whose FAN is in his hand, and he will thoroughly PURGE his FLOOR, and GATHER his WHEAT into the GARNER, but he will BURN UP the CHAFF with UNQUENCHABLE FIRE. By what an apt and awful similitude does St. Paul represent God's rejection of the Jews and admission of the heathens, by the boughs of an olive being lopped off, and the scion of a young olive ingrafted into the old tree! (Rom. xi. 17. &c.)"-a practice which still obtains in the Morea or Peloponnesus3; " and, by continuing the same imagery, how strictly does he caution the Gentiles against insolently exulting over the mutilated branches, and cherishing the vain conceit that the boughs were lopped off merely that they might be ingrafted; for if God spared not the native branches, they had greater reason to fear 1 1 Cor. iii. 9. Θεοῦ γεώργιον. - 22 Tim. ii. 15. 'Eруатηy орbотоμоûvта. A beautiful and expressive image taken from an husbandman (pyarns) drawing his furrow even, and cutting the ground in a direct line. Ernesti says, that the cognate word oporóuia is used by Clemens Alexandrinus, Eusebius, and others, for opeodogia- right doctrine. Instit. Interp. Nov. Test., p. 109. (Edit. 1792.) A similar remark is also made by Schleusner, voce oрlоτóμew. The Rev. John Hartley, who travelled in Greece in 1828, says, "I had my attention directed to the practice of grafting the olive-trees, to which St. Paul alludes (Rom. xi. 17. 20. 23, 24.) Logothetes" (his friend and guide) "showed me a few wild olives; but by far the greater number are such as have been grafted. He informs me that it is the universal practice in Greece to graft, from a good tree, upon the wild olive." (Missionary Register, May, 1830, p. 225.) lest he would not spare them; that they should remember that the Jews through their wilful disbelief of Christianity were cut off, and that they, the Gentiles, if they disgrace their religion, would in like manner forfeit the divine favour, and their present flourishing branches be also cut down! To inspire the Gentile Christians with humility, he concludes with assuring them that the Jewish nation, though they had experienced the severity of God, as he calls it, were not totally forsaken of the Almighty: that the branches, though cut down and robbed of their ancient honours, were not abandoned to perish: when the Jews returned from their infidelity they would be ingrafted: an omnipotent hand was still able to re-insert them into their original stock. For if thou, O heathen, the scion of an unfruitful wild olive, wert cut out of thy own native barren tree, and, by a process repugnant to the ordinary laws of nature, wert ingrafted into the fruitful generous olive-how much more will not those, who naturally belong to the ancient stock, be, in future time, ingrafted into their own kindred olive! With what singular beauty and propriety is the gradual progress of religion in the soul, from the beginning to its maturity, represented by seed committed to a generous soil, which, after a few successions of day and night, imperceptibly vegetates peeps above the surface-springs higher and higher-and spontaneously producing, first, the verdant blade then the ear-afterwards the swelling grain, gradually filling the ear (Mark iv. 27, 28.)1; and when the time of harvest is come, and it is arrived at its maturity, it is then reaped and collected into the storehouse. Beautiful illustrations and images like these, taken from rural life, must seal the strongest impressions, particularly upon the minds of Jews, who were daily employed in these occupations, from which these pertinent similes and expressive comparisons were borrowed."2 SECT. II. ON THE ARTS CULTIVATED BY THE HEBREWS OR JEWS. I. THE arts, which are now brought to such an admirable state of perfection, it is universally allowed, must have originated partly in necessity and partly in accident. At first they must have been very imperfect and very limited; but the inquisitive and active mind of man, seconded by his wants, soon secured to them a greater extent, and fewer imperfections. Accordingly, in the fourth generation after the creation of man, we find mention made of artificers in brass and iron, and also of musical instruments. (Gen. iv. 21, 22.) Those communities, which, from local or other causes, could not flourish by 1 Seminis modo spargenda sunt, quod quamvis sit exiguum, cum occupavit idoneum locum, vires suas explicat, et ex minimo in maximos auctus diffunditur. Senecæ Opera, tom. ii. epist. 38. p. 134. edit. Gronovii. 1672. 2 Harwood's Introduction, vol. ii. pp. 107-112. means of agriculture, would necessarily direct their attention to the encouragement and improvement of the arts. These, consequently, advanced with great rapidity, and were carried to a high pitch so far back as the time of Noah; as we may learn from the very large vessel built under his direction, the construction of which shows that they must have been well acquainted with some at least of the mechanical arts. They had also, without doubt, seen the operations of artificers in other ways besides that of building, and after the deluge imitated their works as well as they could. Hence it is, that shortly after that event, we find mention made of utensils, ornaments, and many other things which imply a knowledge of the arts. Compare Gen. ix. 21., xi. 1—9., xii. 7, 8., xiv. 1—16., xvii. 10., xviii. 4—6., xix. 32., xxxi. 19. 27. 34. II. How greatly Egypt, in the early age of the world, excelled all other nations in a knowledge of the arts is sufficiently evident from the very important and valuable researches of Sir J. G. Wilkinson, who has compared the sculptures, monuments, and paintings still existing with the accounts of ancient authors. Although the Hebrews, during their residence in Egypt, applied themselves to the rearing of cattle, yet they could not remain four hundred years in that country without becoming initiated to a considerable degree into that knowledge which the Egyptians possessed. Among other labours imposed upon them, was the building of treasure cities (Exod. i. 11-14.), and, according to Josephus, they were employed in erecting pyramids. When the Israelites reached the desert, they knew how to make various articles for the sacred tabernacle; as is related in Exod. xxxi. 1-11., xxxv. 30—35., xxxvi. 1—4. The history of the golden calf (Exod. xxxii. 1-6.), is a proof of their acquaintance with the mechanical arts; and though Moses did not enact any special laws in favour of the arts, yet he did not interdict them or lessen them in the estimation of the people; on the contrary, he speaks in the praise of artificers. (Exod. xxxv. 30-35., xxxvi. 1. et seq., xxxviii. 22, 23. &c.) The grand object of Moses, in a temporal point of view, was to promote agriculture, and he thought it best, as was done in other nations, to leave the arts to the ingenuity and industry of the people. Soon after the death of Joshua, a place was expressly allotted by Joab, of the tribe of Judah, to artificers; for in the genealogy of the tribe of Judah, delivered in 1 Chron. iv. 14., we read of a place called the Valley of Craftsmen, and (ver. 21. 23.) of a family of workmen of fine linen, and another of potters; and when Jerusalem was taken by Nebuchadnezzar, the enemy carried away all the craftsmen and smiths. (2 Kings xxiv. 14.) But as a proof that their skill in manufactures, and trade therein, could not be very extensive, we find that the prophet Ezekiel (chap. xxvii.) in describing the affluence of the 1 Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians, including their private life, government, laws, arts, manufactures, and early history. By [Sir] J. G. Wilkinson, [Two Series], London, 1837-41, in five volumes, Svo. 2 Antiq. lib. ii. c. 9. § 1. : goods which came to Tyre, makes mention of nothing brought thither from Judæa, except wheat, oil, grapes, and balm, which were all the natural products of their soil. It appears that the mistress of the family usually made the clothing for her husband, her children, and herself, and also for sale. (Exod. xxxv. 25.; 1 Sam. ii. 19.; Prov. xxxi. 18-24.; Acts ix. 39.) Employment, consequently, as far as the arts were concerned, was limited chiefly to those who engaged in the more difficult performances; for instance, those who built chariots, hewed stones, sculptured idols or made them of metal, or who made instruments of gold, silver, and brass, and vessels, of clay, and the like. (See Judg. xvii. 4.; Isa. xxix. 16., xxx. 14.; Jer. xxviii. 13.) In the time of Saul, mention is made of smiths, who manufactured implements of agriculture as well as arms; but who were carried off by the Philistines, in order that they might be enabled to keep the Israelites more effectually in subjection. (1 Sam. xiii. 19-22.) Among the Hebrews, artificers were not, as among the Greeks and Romans, servants and slaves, but men of some rank and wealth and as luxury and riches increased, they became very numerous. (Jer. xxiv. 1., xxix. 2. ; 2 Kings xxiv. 14.) Building and architecture, however, did not attain much perfection prior to the reign of the accomplished Solomon. We read, indeed, before the Israelites came into the land of Canaan, that Bezaleel and Aholiab (who were employed in the construction of the tabernacle) excelled in all manner of workmanship (Exod. xxxv. 30—35.), but we are there told, that they had their skill by inspiration from God, and it does not appear that they had any successors: for in the days of Solomon, when the Hebrews were at rest from all their enemies, and were perfectly at liberty to follow out improvements of every kind, yet they had no professed artists that could undertake the work of the temple; so that, in the commencement of his reign, Solomon was obliged to send to Hiram king of Tyre for a skilful artist (2 Chron. ii. 7.), by whose direction the model of the temple and all the curious furniture of it was both designed and finished. (1 Kings vii. 13, 14.; 2 Chron. iv. 11-16.) From the Syrians the Israelites must have learned much, because, long after the reign of Solomon, there were numerous native artisans employed in carpentry and building (2 Kings xii. 11-13., xxii. 4-6.); and among the captives carried away by Nebuchadnezzar, all the craftsmen and smiths are generally noticed. (2 Kings xxiv. 14.) But besides these, mention is made of particular manufacturers, as potters (Jer. xviii. 2-4.), fullers (2 Kings xviii. 17.; Isa. vii. 3.; Mal. iii. 2.; Mark ix. 3.), bakers (Jer. xxxvii. 21.; Hos. vii. 4.), and barbers. (Ezek. v. 1.) III. During the captivity many Hebrews (most commonly those to whom a barren tract of soil had been assigned) applied themselves to the arts and to merchandise. Subsequently, when they were scattered abroad among different nations, a knowledge of the arts became so popular, that the Talmudists taught, that all parents ought to teach their children some art or handicraft. They indeed mention many learned men of their nation, who practised some kind of manual |