Tell which are of the first, second, and third RANK.

3. Tell which are united co-ORDINATELY, which SUBORDINATELY, which TH, and which WITHOUT, a connective.

4. Tell which elements CONTROL or govern others, which MODIFY, and hich neither CONTROL nor MODIFY.

163. Principal Elements.

1. The principal elements are the highest in rank (157, 1), ad are essential to the formation of a sentence. They are the bject, and the predicate (150, 3, 4).

2. The subject is a word, or a group of words, used to repreent that of which something is affirmed; as, "The sea roars;" To err is human;"" That Christianity will become the religion f all nations, is declared in the Scriptures."

3. The predicate is a word, or a group of words, used to repreent that which is affirmed of the subject; as, "The day dawns;" The affair is to be investigated;" "Our hope was, that the wind could drive us to the opposite shore."

4. The subject represents some object (35, 2), and the predicate some ttribute of that object; as, "The city is populous ;" "The morning light =breaking."

5. Attributes are of three kinds :

(a.) Those which denote the class of objects; as, beast, bird, tree.
(b.) Those which denote the qualities of objects; as, good, old, sweet.
(c.) Those which denote the actions of objects; as, run, crawl, fly.

6. In some cases, the attribute denotes merely the state of the object; as, The tree stands ;" "The prisoner is in health.”

7. The union of the attribute with its object may be repreented in two ways:—

(a.) It may be predicated of it; as, "The sky is blue;" "The sea is ough;""Reptiles are poisonous;" or,

(b.) It may be assumed of it; as, "blue sky;" "rough sea;" "poisonus reptiles."

8. This distinction is fundamental; if no attribute is predicated, we canot have a sentence, no matter how many may be assumed. The one is alled the predicative combination, the other the adjective or attributive. The ne is a formal statement (Lat. "predicare," to tell, to declare) of a present pinion or judgment of the speaker; the other is an informal assumption Lat. "assumere," to take, as if conceded, or granted) of a previous opinion

Principal elements. The subject. The predicate. Attributes of class, quality, action. Attributes predicated-assumed.

or judgment, not now asserted, but supposed to be granted by the hear The one is a proposition (150, 2), the other is not (although it presupposes one), but is a mere appendage to one. A predicated action is represented a rerb; an assumed action by a participle, that is, the former asserts soms thing of a noun, the latter assumes the same and thereby limits the noun.

9. The attribute, when predicated, is joined to the subject either directly or by some form of the verb "to be," called the copula. When the copula: employed, it connects the attribute to the subject by predicating it. When the copula and attribute are united in the verb, the latter contains the power to predicate its own attribute (80).

10. Besides the copula, several verbs, such as become, seem, appear, and the passives is made, is appointed, is elected, is created, is constituted, is rendered is named, is styled, is called, is esteemed, is thought, is considered, &c., &iling perform the office of the copula, and are hence called copulative verbs.

164. Subordinate Elements.

1. The subordinate elements are those which depend upon and modify (161, 4) the principal elements. They are (a.) The adjective or attributive element;

(b.) The objective element;

(c) The adverbial element.

2. These elements are used to give greater definiteness to a proposi tion by limiting the application of its principal terms (161, 6).

3. The adjective element is any word, or group of words, added to the subject (or the noun in any relation), and is used to show what kind, what, of what, how many, or whose; as, "White clouds were seen in the west;" These hands have ministered to my necessities;" "Three regiments of volunteers were enlisted;"; "Those who expect favors must learn to be obliging."

4. The objective element is a word, or group of words, added usually to a transitive verb, and is used to complete its meaning by showing what, whom, to what, to whom, &c.; as, "The boy opened the door;" "Pharaoh made Joseph governor over the land;" "He gave me a book."

5. The object may be either single or double, direct or indirect.

6. Certain adjectives, and even the adverbs derived from them, require tLe addition of an indirect object to complete their meaning; as, "He was conscious of his weakness;" "He was like his father;" "They came agreeably te promise."

7. The adverbial element is any word, or group of words, added

The copula. Copulative verbs. Subordinate elements. The adjective eleThe objective element. The adverbial element.

ment.

66

a verb, an adjective, or an adverb, and is used to show place, e, cause, or manner; We approached slowly;" "They came the spring;" "They stopped where night overtook them."

. Adverbial elements of whatever form, like adverbs, denote place, time, se, or manner.

165. Exercise.

. Separate the following sentences into their elements:—

the test.

The principle which gave a peculiar coloring to every feature of Isala's mind was piety. Death is the season which brings our affections Has reason fled from our borders? To err is human; to give, divine. That high moral excellence is true greatness cannot be nied. I have forgotten why I called thee back. There are plenty of n who become distinguished by the predominance of one single ulty, or the exercise of a solitary virtue. She moves a goddess. le mourned the lily where the rose had died. Now fades the glimering landscape from the sight. Deep in the wave is a coral grove. e eldest son of the British sovereign is styled the Prince of Wales. 2. Tell which are PRINCIPAL, and which SUBORDINATE.

3. Tell which subjects or predicates are WORDS or GROUPS of words. 4. Tell which predicates denote CLASS, which QUALITY, and which ACTION. 5. ASSUME each predicate of its subject.

6. Tell which predicates have a COPULA or COPULATIVE verb.

7. Point out the ADJECTIVE, OBJECTIVE, and ADVERBIAL elements, and Il which are single words, and which are groups of words.

166. Elements of the First Class.-Words.

1. When a word, expressing an idea without a connective 155, 3, a.), is used as the subject, predicate, or part immediately epending upon either, it is a sentence-element of the first class. EXAMPLE."

Constant-boasting-always-betrays-incapacity."

2. When such a word depends upon one of the subordinate elements, is of the third rank (159, 2), and though an element of the first class, is an element of an element, that is, forms part of a complex element; s, "We hoped to find employment."

3. All words, thus used, perform the office of the substantive, adjecive, or adverb (156, 2).

A word-when a sentence-element-when not an element. A word-subantive. adjective, or adverbial.

167. Elements of the Second Class.-Phrases.

1. When an expression, in its simplest form, has one word to represent an idea, and another to show its relation, it is a phrase or element of the second class.

EXAMPLE." A statue of marble—was chiselled-by the artist."

NOTE. Any group of words not containing an assertion is a phrase; ss very earnestly;" "quite favorably ;" but here each word expresses an idea A phrase, as used in analysis of sentences, is restricted to a group of words having one word to show a relation, and another either alone or modified to express an idea; as, “at dawn;"" at early dawn."

2. When a phrase depends upon one of the subordinate elements, is still an element of the second class, but not a sentence-element (159, 2); as, "A popular poet had the post of honor."

3. All phrases, as a whole, are either substantive, adjective, or adverbial (156, 2).

4. Every simple phrase should be separated into its two parts; and every complex or compound phrase into its simple elements. For a full discussion of Phrases, see Analysis, Chap. II.

168. Elements of the Third Class.-Clauses.

1. When an expression, in its simplest form, has a proposidon to represent an idea and some word to show its relation, it is clause or element of the third class.

EXAMPLE." Satan, whom now transcendent glory raised above his fellow spake."

2. A clause, like a phrase, is always a group of words; but, unlike phrase, it always contains a proposition.

3. A clause is a sentence-element (159, 2) only when it is used as the su ject, predicate, or part directly dependent upon one of these; otherwise, it but an clement of an element.

Examples of clauses used as sentence-elements.—“That a man of mighty geni can impart himself to other minds is well known to all." "He who teach often learns himself." "Thou knowest that virtue cannot be despoiled of in deathless crown." "If thine enemy hunger, feed him."

Examples of clauses used as parts of elements.-" They-sailed—in the steamer which left on Wednesday," "I-experienced-a pleasure which I can not describe."

4. All subordinate clauses are either substantive, adjective, or adverbia (159, 2), and may take the grammatical construction of the parts of speec which they represent.

A phrase-when a sentence-element-when not. adjective, or adverbial.

Phrases-substantive

A clause-when a sentence-element-when not Subordinate clauses-substantive, adjective, adverbial.

5. A simple subordinate clause consists of a connective, and a proposition ntaining a subject and a predicate only (150, 10). A complex clause is med by adding modifying elements to the subject or predicate of a simple Luse. See Analysis, Chap. III.

ow.

169. Exercise.

Separate the following sentences into their elements, and tell which are of ? FIRST CLASS, which of the SECOND, and which of the THIRD :— Regard the rights of property. Columbus died in ignorance of the al grandeur of his discovery. On Prague's proud arch the fires of ruin The credulity which has faith in goodness is a sign of goodness. e noble Brutus hath told you Cæsar was ambitious. We stand the test, and if we fail, probably the last, experiment of self-government the people. We have begun it under circumstances of the most spicious nature. We are in the vigor of youth. Our growth has ver been checked by the oppressions of tyranny. The Atlantic rolls tween us and any formidable foe.

Lochiel, Lochiel, beware of the day

When the Lowlands shall meet thee in battle array.

170. Direct and Indirect Quotation.

1. When a writer quotes the thought of another, and incor›rates it into a sentence of his own, he may introduce it

(a.) As a thought of the author narrated by himself in his own words actly; or

(b.) As an idea of the speaker adopted from the author, and narrated r the latter in his own words nearly.

The first is called direct quotation; as, "He said, 'I will do The second is called indirect quotation; as, "He said, at he would do it."

2. The quoted part is used substantively, and appears as a substantive ause most commonly in the objective.

3. All substantive clauses may be divided into those containing

(a.) A statement or a command; as, "Many suppose that the planets are habited ;” “The captain gave the order, 'shoulder arms.'

(b.) An inquiry; as, "Let me ask why you have come?"

4. In quoting a statement of another directly, we should indicate the quoation by the marks, or the use of the capital, without a connective (160, 5). But in quoting indirectly, the quotation marks are omitted, and the connectve that should be employed; as, "God said, Let there be light, and there vas light;" "St. John says that God is love."

Simple and complex clauses. Quotation,-when direct and when indirect. A substantive clause, a statement, an inquiry. Quoted questions-direct and ndirect.