7. Pleonasm takes place,

(a.) When the same idea is repeated in the same or in different words; Verily, verily, I say unto you.” “All ye inhabitants of the world, A dwellers on the earth."

66

(b.) When a noun is introduced into a sentence, and then immediately presented in the same relation by a pronoun; as, "Now Harry he had ig suspected."

(c.) When a noun or any other word is repeated in the same relation, : the purpose of modifying it; as, That great God whom you .see › daily worship; that God who created the heavens and this God who has done all these great things this great God, the Creator of worlds, of angels, and men, is ur Father and Friend."

e earth;

* —*—

8. Enallage is a change of one part of speech for another, or me modification of a word for another; as, "They fall succesve [ly] and successive [ly] rise." "We, Alexander, Emperor Russia." Here, the plural number is used for the singular.

9. Hyperbaton is the transposition of words; as, "While its ›ng rolls the woods along.”

237. Exercise.

1. Supply the words omitted by ellipsis in the following:—

Vigor from toil, from trouble patience grows.
One cried, God bless us! and Amen! the other.

2. Tell what figures occur in the following examples:—

The pilgrim fathers, where are they? Dark burned the candle. For Renard close attended at his heels. Sometimes with early morn, he mounted gay. Seven circling planets we behold. Say, burst they bor

rowed from her father's wounds these drops.

Pleonasm. Enallage. Hyperbaton..

238. Figures of Rhetoric.

1. A figure of Rhetoric is a deviation from the ordina application of a word; it is commonly called a trope.

2. Metaphor gives to an object the appropriate name another object, on account of a resemblance between them; a "Man! thou pendulum betwixt a smile and tear."

3. Simile is a formal comparison introduced by like, as, or sc as, "He shall be like a tree planted by the rivers of water." 4. An Allegory is a continued metaphor, forming a kind o parable or fable. For examples, see Pilgrim's Progress. Se also the Eightieth Psalm.

5. Personification attributes to inanimate objects some of th qualities of living beings; as, "The sky saddens with th gathered storm.”

6. Metonymy is a change of name; as, "You will address th chair;" i. e., the president.

7. Vision represents imaginary objects as real and present to th senses; as,

"See lofty Lebanon his head advance;

See nodding forests on the mountains dance."

8. Synecdoche is the use of a part for the whole, or the whol for a part, as a sail for a ship, a roof for a house, the head for the

person.

9. Irony is the use of a word for its opposite; as, as virtuous as Nero;" i. e., as vile as Nero.

"He was

10. Antithesis is the placing of contrary or opposite objects in contrast; as, "Immortal, though no more; though fallen, great." 11. Hyperbole magnifies or diminishes an object beyond the truth; as, "Rivers of water run down mine eyes, because they keep not thy law."

12. Exclamation is used to express some strong emotion of the mind; as, "O the depth of the riches both of the wisdom and the knowledge of God!"

Figures of Rhetoric. Metaphor. Simile. Allegory. Personification. Metonymy. Vision. Synecdoche. Irony. Antithesis. Hyperbole. Exclamation.

3. Interrogation is used to express a strong affirmation under form of a question; as, "Hath he said it, and will he not t?"

4. Apostrophe is a turning off from the subject to address e other person or thing; as, "Death is swallowed up in ory. O Death, where is thy sting? O Grave, where is thy Cory ?",

5. Climax is a series of members in a sentence, each rising mportance above the preceding.

XAMPLE. "What hope is there remaining of liberty, if whatever is their sure it is lawful for them to do; if whatever it is lawful for them to do, y are able to do; if what they are able to do, they dare to do; if what y dare to do, they really execute; and if what they execute is no way nsive to you?"

"Yet at thy call the hardy tar pursued,
Pale, but intrepid; sad, but unsubdued."

'Twas then his threshold first received a guest.
For a field of the dead rushes red on my sight,

And the clans of Culloden are scatter'd in flight."

He has at last assumed the sceptre. The power of appointment is ested in the crown. The garrison was put to the sword. In the sweat thy face shalt thou eat thy bread. The sea saw it and fled. Joseph a fruitful bough. Devotion is a delicate and tender plant. A virtuous an, slandered by evil tongues, is like a diamond obscured by smoke. will be to her a wall of fire. What ailed thee, O thou sea, that thou eddest? They are swifter than eagles, they are stronger than lions. anst thou by searching find out God? Canst thou find out the Almighty nto perfection? What a piece of work is man! how noble in reason! ow infinite in faculties! in action, how like an angel! in apprehension, ow like a God! It is only when some moral or political Waterloo or olferino is to be fought, that he puts on the entire panoply of his gor-. eous rhetoric.

Explain the figures in 1 Kings xviii. 27; 2 Pet. i. 5-7; also Judges x. 8-17.

Interrogation. Apostrophe. Climax.

PUNCTUATION.

240. Definitions and Distinctions.

1. Punctuation is the art of dividing written composition by means of points.

2. Points are used to separate either entire sentences, or the elements of sentences.

NOTE. Let it be understood, that an element may be either a word, a phrase, or clause.

3. A point should not be used,—

(a.) To separate the parts of a simple element.

(b.) To separate two united elements when arranged grammatically, and closely joined.

(c.) To separate two united elements simply because, in the utterance, & pause should be made.

NOTE. Points are used to mark the sense, rather than the pauses. It is true, that a pause should generally be made where there is a point, but it is not equally true that a point should be placed wherever there is a pause. 4. A point is required,—

(1.) Always at the end of a full sentence.

(2.) Always between the members of a loose sentence. (3.) Generally between two elements of a sentence,— (a.) When several similar elements come together.

(b.) When an element is loosely connected.

(c.) When more closely connected, but transposed.

(d.) When closely connected, but greatly extended in length.

(e.) When some important word is omitted.

(ƒ.) When, in any case, the meaning would be obscure or ambiguous without a point.

5. As an example of the effect of pointing, see the change of meaning in the following words:

James Johnson says he has written beautifully. James, Johnson says he has written beautifully. "James Johnson," says he, "has written beautifully." James Johnson says he has written " beautifully."

6. The principal punctuation marks are, the comma (,), the semicolon (;), the colon (:), the dush (—), the parenthesis (), the period (.), the interrogation point (?), and the exclamation point (!).

Punctuation. Entire sentences and elements of sentences. When no points are used. Cases where points are required. Effect of pointing. The principal points.

(244)

POINTS USED WITHIN A SENTENCE.

241. General Uses of the Comma.

1. The comma is used principally in separating the elements simple or complex sentences.

2. As the comma interrupts, in some measure, the union of two elents (160), it should never be employed to break the connection when e necessarily restricts the meaning of the other.

3. When an element to be pointed off stands at the beginning or end a sentence, one comma only is used; but when it stands within the ntence, two commas are usually employed; as, "In fact, the people e the dupes of demagogues." "The people, in fact, are the dupes demagogues."

4. The comma is often used to mark the omission of a word, espelly that of the verb in closely connected clauses; as, "Semiramis ilt Babylon; Dido, Carthage; and Romulus, Rome."

5. The comma may be used to separate,

(a) Coördinate elements.

(b) A principal from a subordinate element.

(c) Two principal elements.

(d) An independent, or a parenthetic element from the rest of the sentence.

242. Coördinate Elements.

1. All coördinate elements may be divided into,—

(a.) Coördinate pairs, or couplets, consisting of two coördinate terms. (b.) Coördinate series, consisting of three or more coördinate terms. Thus, Nouns and pronouns" is a couplet; "Nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and partiples” is a coördinate series. In the following example we have a series of Duplets or compound terms:-"But, whether ingenious or dull, learned or morant, clownish or polite, every innocent man, without exception, has as ood a right to liberty as to life."-Beattie.

2. The pointing of couplets depends, in some measure, upon the loseness of the connection. As a general rule, two elements are most losely connected when correlatives are used, except when used for conrast or emphasis, less closely connected when a single conjunction is employed, and least of all when none is used; as, "He was both viruous and wise;" "He was virtuous and wise;" "He was virtuous, wise."

3. The terms of a coördinate couplet, as a general rule, should not be separated.

One

The comma separates elements. Not to break an intimate relation. comma, two commas. Omission of a word. Coördinate pairs. Coördinate series. Rules for couplets.