3. The following words are plural in respect to their original form, but singular or plural in respect to their meaning: alms, amends, news, riches, pains (meaning effort), odds, wages, molasses, series, suds, corps, measles, tidings, mumps, rickets, nuptials; as also the names of some of the sciences; as, mathematics, ethics, optics, statics, mechanics, mnemonics. NOTE.-News is now regarded as singular; so also measles and molasses, although they have the plural form.

4. NOUNS EITHER SINGULAR OR PLURAL. Some nouns are alike in both numbers; as, deer, sheep, swine, vermin, hose, fry, trout, salmon, brace, couple, dozen, yoke, gross.

46. Exercise.

1. Tell which of the following nouns are singular, and which are plural :— Daughter, day, chairs, watches, apple, pears, stars, oats, coat, nails, inkstand, horn, hearts, hoof, books, bundle, scissors, news, trout, milk, purity, chimneys.

2. Write the plural of the following nouns, and give the rule for the termination:

Work, example, lady, oak, horse, hope, stratagem, ferry, leaf, storm, bird, bond, thief, sex, day, filly, half, watch, iron, vinegar, turkey, tomato, potato, spoonful, step-father.

-

3. Tell the singular of the following :

Heroes, pence, strata, teeth, dies, memoranda, children, mice, hypotheses, messieurs, brethren, scissors, seraphim, axes, snuffers, errata, cherubim, sheep, formulæ, swine, solos, flies, knives, riches, mottoes, octavos, courts-martial, inkstands, indices.

4. Correct the following plurals, and give the rule or remarks for the cor

rection:

Negros, folioes, vallies, dutys, thiefs, yokes, calfs, phenomenons, criterions, mans, turkies, flys, father-in-laws, grottoes, son-in-laws, cupsfull, echoes.

47. Gender of Nouns.

1. Gender is a distinction of nouns in regard to sex.

2. There are three genders-the masculine, the feminine, and the neuter.

3. Nouns which denote males are of the masculine gender; as, man, king, hero.

Nouns plural in form but singular in meaning. Nouns either singular or plural. Gender,-masculine, feminine, neuter.

*

4. Nouns which denote females are of the feminine gender; as, woman, queen, mother.

5. Nouns which denote neither males nor females are of the neuter gender; as, tree, rock, paper.

6. Some nouns may denote either males or females; as, parent, child, cousin. These are sometimes said to be of the common gender; but as the gender of such nouns may generally be determined by the connection, there seems to be no necessity for the distinction. In case the gender is not so determined, such nouns may be called masculine.

7. By a figure of speech, called Personification, the masculine or feminine gender is applied to inanimate objects; thus we say of a ship, "She sails well;" of the sun, "He rises in the east." The use of this figure imparts peculiar beauty and animation to language. Her flag streams wildly, and her fluttering sails pant to be on their flight." "The meek-eyed morn appears, mother of dews."

66

8. In speaking of the inferior animals, and sometimes even of infants, the distinction of sex is not observed; as, "And it became a serpent, and Moses fled from before it." "The child was lying in its cradle." But in speaking of animals distinguished for boldness, size, or any other marked quality peculiar to the male, we attribute to them the masculine gender, even when the sex is not known; as, "The eagle is the king of birds."

9. Collective nouns, if they convey the idea of unity, or take the plural form, are neuter; as, "The army, on its approach, raised a shout of defiance." But if they convey the idea of plurality without the plural form, they take the gender of the individuals which compose the collection; as, "The jury could not agree upon their verdict."

10. When the sexes are distinguished by different words (48, 1), the masculine is used to include both sexes; as, "Jenner conferred a great benefit on man."

48. Methods of distinguishing the Sexes.

1. By using different words :

--:

EXAMPLES. Bachelor, maid; beau, belle; boar, sow; boy, girl; brother, sister; buck, doe; bull, cow; cock, hen; drake, duck; earl, countess ; father, mother; gander, goose; horse, mare; husband, wife; king, queen; lad, lass; lord, lady; male, female; man, woman; nephew, niece; ram, ewe; son, daughter; stag, hind; uncle, aunt; wizard, witch; dog, bitch; monk, nun; hart, roe; master, mistress; Mister, Mistress (Mr., Mrs.); papa, mamma sir, madam; sloven, slut; steer, heifer; youth, damsel; swain. nymph.

Gender shown by different words.

(a.) Some masculine nouns have no corresponding feminines; as, baker, rewer, porter, carrier; while some feminine nouns have no corresponding asculine; as, laundress, seamstress.

2. By a difference of termination:

EXAMPLES. Abbot, abbess; actor, actress; administrator, administratrix; dulterer, adultress; ambassador, ambassadress; author, authoress; baron, aroness; bridegroom, bride; benefactor, benefactress; count, countess; dauhin, dauphiness; deacon, deaconess; director, directress; duke, duchess ; Emperor, empress; executor, executrix; governor, governess; heir, heiress; ero, heroine; hunter, huntress; host, hostess; instructor, instructress; Jew, ewess; landgrave, landgravine; lion, lioness; marquis, marchioness; monior, monitress; patron, patroness; poet, poetess; priest, priestess; prince, wrincess; prophet, prophetess; shepherd, shepherdess; testator, testatrix; iger, tigress; tutor, tutoress; widower, widow; god, goddess; giant, giantess; egro, negress; songster, songstress; sorcerer, sorceress; sultan, sultana. 3. By joining some distinguishing word :—

EXAMPLES. Landlord, landlady; gentleman, gentlewoman; peacock, eahen; he-goat, she-goat; man-servant, maid-servant; male-child, femalechild; cock-sparrow, hen-sparrow; grandfather, grandmother; Englishnan, Englishwoman; merman, mermaid; schoolmaster, schoolmistress.

49. Exercise.

1. Tell which of the following nouns are masculine, which feminine, and which neuter :

Picture, walnut, duchess, Spaniard, letter, sailor, queen, priest, curtain, lioness, nun, captain, widow, wizard, deacon, hospital, banner, brother, countess.

2. Give the feminine gender of the following nouns :—

Man, abbot, horse, hero, tiger, heir, prophet, Jew, male, lord, widower, husband, beau, uncle, host, poet, gander, sultan, master, king, bridegroom, prince, nephew, duke.

3. Give the masculine gender of the following:

Empress, mother, sister, marchioness, woman, she-goat, electress, witch, doe.

4. Fill the blanks in the following examples; the first five with common nouns in the masculine gender :—

is patient.

beasts.

loves his sister. exposes his wares for sale.

reigns king of should venerate the

old. The next five with proper or common nouns in the feminine gender:

Gender shown by different terminations,--by distinguishing word.

5. Select the nouns in the following example; tell the class, person, num ber, and gender of each noun :-

66

Thou too sail on, O Ship of State!
Sail on, O Union, strong and great!
Humanity, with all its fears,
With all the hopes of future years,
Is hanging breathless on thy fate!
We know what Master laid thy keel,

What workmen wrought thy ribs of steel.”—Longfellow.

50. Case of Nouns.

1. Casc denotes the relation of a noun or pronoun to other words.

2. There are three cases-the nominative, the possessive, and the objective.

3. The nominative case is the simplest form of the noun, and is commonly used as the subject of a proposition; as, "George speaks." "The door was shut." (See Introduction, Lesson XIX.)

4. Besides being the subject of a proposition, the nominative case may be used, 1st, as the attribute of a proposition; 2d, it may be used to identify the subject or attribute; 3d, it may be independent of an other word; as, 1st, "Peter was an apostle;" "The stars are suns: 2d, "Milton, the poet, was blind.” It was John, the beloved disciple; 3d, "Henry, attend to your studies;"" Mary, are you ready?”

5. The possessive case denotes the relation of property or pos session; as, "David's harp."

6. The possessive singular of nouns is regularly formed by adding an apostrophe (') and the letter s to the nominative; as man's, David's.

7. When the plural ends in s, the apostrophe only is added

Case, nominative. Uses of the nominative,-possessive. Formation of the possessive.

boys', ladies'. But the (') and s are added when it ends in y other letter; as, men's, women's, brethren's.

3. The possessive termination ('s) in the singular, is evidently a conction of the Anglo-Saxon or Old English genitive es or is. The (') the plural is a modern invention, used to denote the possessive case. Lord Grey's letter to the Prince of Wales, written the latter part of e twelfth or the first of the thirteenth century, are these expressions, "Our liege Lordes pryve seal;" "The Kynges commaundement ;" The Erles ground."

9. When the singular ends in s, or in a letter or combination of letters ving the sound of s, and the addition of a syllable would be harsh, e poets and some prose writers add the (') only; as, Peleus' son, odness' sake, conscience' sake, Moses' seat, the cockatrice' den.

10. Some difference of opinion prevails among writers respecting the rm of the possessive in other cases where the singular ends in s, some lding the (') only, and some the (') and s. Thus we have Adams' press, or Adams's express; Otis' letters, or Otis's letters. The weight f authority is in favor of the additional s, whenever the laws of euphony ill admit; especially if a syllable is added in pronouncing the word; s, Bates's Sermons, Barnes's Notes.

11. In nouns whose singular and plural are alike (45, 4) the apostrohe should precede the s in the singular, and follow it in the plural; as, leer's, deers'; sheep's, sheeps'.

12. For the sound of the apostrophic s, and the increase of syllables, jee (42, 2, 3).

13. The use of the apostrophe and s to mark the plural of letters and signs (43, 9), has no connection with case.

14. When a noun follows a transitive verb or a preposition, it is in the objective case; as, "Thomas opened his knife." "The bird sat on the tree."

15. The nominative case answers the question Who? or What? as, "Who writes ?" "John writes." "What alarms him?" "The storm alarms him." The possessive case answers the question Whose? as, "Whose book have you?" "I have my brother's book." The objective case answers the question Whom? or What? as, Whom do you see?' "I see the captain." "On what does he stand?" "He stands upon the deck."

66

16. The possessive case may be known by its form. But the forms of the nominative and the objective are alike; hence they must be determined by their relation to other words.

Origin of ('s.) Objective case. Questions answered by each case.