especially when they needed efficient causes, were borrowed from the Spiritualist's doctrine of activity. Some of these physicists actually believed in a soul, but not being specially interested in it, the problem of survival had no importance for them. They were spoken of as materialists, but only because they maintained that matter was the primary substance in the world and "soul" was to them but a fine form of this matter, when they admitted its existence. The Eleatics were too absorbed in Pantheism or Monism to think or say much about the individual soul and its destiny.

But Heraclitus, who opposed the Eleatics, was more definite on this matter and admitted a soul and its survival. He said that "men are mortal gods and the gods immortal men; our life is the death of the gods and our death their life. So long as man lives the divine part of his nature is bound up with baser substances, from which in death he again becomes free. Souls traverse the way upwards and the way downwards; they enter into bodies because they require change." He attributed a further existence to souls escaped from their bodies, and said that there awaits man after his death that which he now neither hopes nor believes. He makes mention of demons and heroes and assigns the demons as guardians, not only to the living, but to the dead. This is pure and unadulterated Spiritualism, even of the modern type, and was probably derived in the same way.

The close affinity of early Greek thought, extending throughout its later history, to modern Spiritualism and Theosophy is evident in the following facts, even though the philosophy was establishing systems evading or denying the ideas of religion. When philosophy arose it faced two questions: (1) Monotheism as against polytheism that had its affinities, on one side, with nature worship and, on the other, with animism or Spiritualism, and (2) A Future Life. Religion

tended to polytheism and philosophy to monotheism. In the first period the Mysteries prevailed which were connected with some form of Spiritualism. The Orphic Mysteries believed in transmigration and in it we have the ancestral idea of Plato's doctrine, though he eliminated the elements which made it interesting to the religious mind. Some held that transmigration was for punishment. This view may have been a distorted form of what is apparent in obsession or "earthbound" conditions where temporary possession may be a method of clearing away the hallucinations that constitute "earthbound" conditions. Pindar, however, regarded transmigration as a privilege accorded to the best spirits to earn higher happiness. This is merely a modified form of the previous view and is reflected in mediumistic phenomena where spirits claim that their service to the living is a part of their own salvation and spiritual development.

The Ionian school of philosophers are known as physicists and were the first to exalt "natural" or physical causes. They were Thales, Anaximander, and Anaximines. There is little preserved regarding their opinion of spirit or soul. According to Plutarch, Thales admitted that there was a soul which he defined as "Physis aeikinetos ê autokinetos," or "matter always in motion or capable of self-motion." Here was the rising distinction between inertia and spontaneity, culminating in the distinction between mechanism and teleological action. With Anaximander the soul was of the nature of Air. It was Air in the philosophy of Anaximines which constituted the fundamental substance from which all other things were formed. But Anaximander did not conceive the air as we do. He thought of it much more as scientific men think of the ether. It was not regarded as gross matter until the time of Lucretius who had to prove that it was the same kind of substance as is constantly revealed

to the senses, and perhaps the final proof of this did not come until the existence of the air pump and the discovery of gravity. Hence Anaximander had more or less the notion of "spirit" in his conception of the air and Anaximines made it the universal element from which all things were created. Anaximander's element was the infinite or the indefinite and so was not accessible to sense, but the abstraction of all the material qualities that appealed to sense. The concession that both made to the idea of a soul was a sop to popular opinion.

Heraclitus had as his great principle Change or Motion, “the eternal flux.” His was a dynamic principle or cause, though he combined it with material causes. The principal material cause was "fire" or heat. But he made this as indefinite and transcendental as any later thinker. He regarded the soul as a fiery vapor, and believed in transmigration. He said: "While we live our souls are dead in us, but when we die our souls are restored to us.” This reminds us of the constant statement made through Mrs. Piper and other psychics that while we are alive, our souls are as if asleep. Souls go up or down. That is, they rise or go downward toward the earth, develop to "higher spheres" or remain earthbound. With him gods and heroes were probably identified, as was done by other and later thinkers, 'suggesting that the dead act as our helpers. He supposed that "demons," which is but a term for "spirits," were in everything. This is pure Animism and extended the idea of spirits into all organic life and perhaps the inorganic. These "demons" he regarded as guardians of both the living and the dead, maintaining the very doctrine of modern Spiritualism. Transmigration is a process of purification and the "demons" finally enter a purer life. Modern Theosophy is clear in both these views.

All these earlier systems were monistic in the view

that there was one kind of reality or substance, though many forms of it. But the next school is the Atomists, and their views here are especially interesting, as they were the founders of Materialism.

Empedocles believed there were four elements in the structure of the cosmos, they were: earth, fire, air and water. Later Atomists simply multiplied this number. The force which affected the colligations of these elements was "love and hate," or attraction and repulsion. But he did not limit his theories of things to this. He largely accepted the popular religious doctrine. He believed in transmigration of souls, and in regard to murder and perjury in particular he thought they were punished by being separated from the Blessed and made to wander 30,000 seasons in various forms of existence. "Guilt laden spirits were tossed about in restless flight." Here we have the Spiritualists' wandering spirits, happening to communicate in capricious way as they chanced upon a suitable medium. Empedocles thought the very elements were gods or demons as moving forces.

Democritus modified the atomic doctrine by making the atoms infinite in number, but the same in kind. He had a soul doctrine, however, in which he made the soul corporeal, though animating the body just as primitive Spiritualism or Animism believed. It was in constant motion and of the nature of fire. The body was merely the "vessel" of the soul. He ultimately identified this soul with the Deity, thus admitting the divine, though in the pantheistic form. Zeller says of his religion: "He assumed that there dwell in the air beings who are similar to man in form, but superior to him in greatness, power, and duration of life. These beings manifest themselves when emanations and images, streaming from them and often reproducing themselves at a great distance, become visible and audible to men and animals, and they are held to be gods, although

in truth they are not divine and imperishable, but only less perishable than men. These beings are partly of a beneficent and partly of a malevolent nature."

Here we have views that combine various forms of Spiritualism. (1) There is the existence of spirits. (2) There is a doctrine of apparitions explained more or less by the theory of matter as it affects sense perception. (3) There is almost our conception of telepathy. Distance has no effect on the production of these phantasms, and the mode of describing their action is closely related to the spiritualistic doctrine of materialization. (4) Their temporary nature is identical with some modern views which hold that spirits ultimately perish, though granting that they survive the body for a time. This view is probably based upon the less frequent appearance of older spirits than those who have recently left the body. (5) There is also the distinction between good and malicious spirits. He also admitted the significance of dreams.

All this only shows that side by side with the effort to determine the material or structural causes of things the earlier philosophers believed in the existence of souls, having borrowed their doctrine from the prevailing animism of the time, and so maintained a sort of dualism in spite of the fact that all the elements of nature were of one kind, differing in degree of density. But souls inhabited bodies just as later religious doctrines held. The admission prepared the way for a doctrine of efficient causes along with material ones, and this idea came out in Socrates, Plato, Anaxagoras and Aristotle, and then later in Christianity.

It is interesting to note with Tylor, in his Primitive Culture, that the materialistic conception of sense perception was an adaptation of a spiritualistic theory. The Animists of all ages attached a soul to everything. Every conceivable object had its soul or double. Empedocles thought that bodies threw off emanations or