130 BROGLIO-BRONGNIART. State. Almost from the period of his retreat from the ministry, in 1836, to the year 1840, he has from time to time been applied to for the formation of a new cabinet; which applications he has uniformly declined. He has latterly separated himself in a considerable degree from Guizot, and his former political associates, the doctrinaires, and has approached nearer in his opinions to Thiers, and even to Odillon Barrot. He has always taken a great interest in the amelioration of the condition of the negroes. When minister of Foreign Affairs, he was solicitous to accomplish, in co-operation with the British government, the entire suppression of the African slave trade; and in March 1842, he presided in Paris at an abolition meeting. king of Denmark near the pope, a situation more favourable than a continued residence in Copenhagen, for the preparation of the work which was to embody the results of his researches in Greece. He made excursions, in 1820 and 1821, from Rome to the Ionian islands and Sicily; and after the engravings for his work were executed in Italy, he quitted that country to superintend the printing of it at Paris. His residence for several years in the last mentioned city was interrupted only by a visit to England in 1826, and another to Denmark in 1827. In 1832, he finally returned to Copenhagen, where, as superintendent of the royal cabinet of antiquities, and professor of classical philology and archæology in the university, he found a suitable sphere of exertion. He died in BROKEN-WINDED; a ruptured state of the consequence of a fall from a horse on the air cells, chiefly on the edges of the lungs, 26th of June 1842.-The title of the work in the horse, in consequence of which the above referred to,--the only one of any inexpiration occupies more time than the in-portance of which he is the author,-is spiration of the air, and is laboriously, and generally spasmodically, effected. It is a disease which may admit of palliation, but not of cure; the animal becomes gradually less capable of exertion, and if urged on, he drops and dies. BROME* is, by English authors, usually styled bromine. Its equivalent number is about 78. BRONCHIA; the windpipe. the smaller ramifications of BRONCHITIS is the inflammation of the bronchia. entitled "Reisen und Untersuchungen in Griechenland, nebst Darstellung und Erklärung vieler neuentdeckten Denkmäler Griechischen Stils" (2 vol. 1826-30). It was published simultaneously in the French and German languages. BRONGNIART (Alexander), a celebrated mineralogist and geologist, was born at Paris, February 5th 1770. He became an engineer of mines in 1794, and was subsequently advanced to the rank of an engineer of the first class. Having already delivered several private courses of lecBRÖNDSTED (Peter Oluf), distinguished tures, he was appointed, in 1796, professor as a philologer and antiquary, was born, of natural history in the "École des Quaon the 17th of November 1781, at Horsens tre Nations," and, at the organization of in Jutland, where his father was a clergy- the university, adjunct professor (to Haüy) man. He studied at Copenhagen. In 1806, of mineralogy. In 1822, he was appointed he went to Paris, accompanied by his friend professor of natural history at the Garden Koes, and remained there for two years, of Plants. Since the year 1800, he has diligently qualifying himself to travel with been the director or superintendent of the advantage into Greece, which it was his porcelain manufactory at Sèvres, into which design to do. From Paris he proceeded to he has introduced many improvements. Italy, whence, in 1810, he, and his friend-Not to speak of the numerous memoirs already mentioned, having been joined by several German travellers, and an English architect, named Cockerell, of like purposes and tastes with themselves, set out on their expedition to Greece. There they remained during a period of three years, examining every thing which that country presents to an inquirer for illustrating its condition in the classic ages, and making frequent excavations to detect the hidden memorials of its ancient existence. Bröndsted returned to Copenhagen in 1813, and was appointed professor of Greek philology in the university of that city. In 1818, he went to Rome as the representative of the on mineralogy, geology, zoology, the art of painting on glass, &c., which he has written, he is the author of a "Traité élémentaire de minéralogie, avec application aux arts" (1807); jointly with Cuvier, of the "Description géologique des environs de Paris" (first ed. 1811, third, 1835); jointly with Desmarest of the "Histoire naturelle des crustacées fossiles" (1822); and of a number of other works, which have attracted the general attention of naturalists.-Brongniart is a member of the Academy of Sciences of Paris, and of the principal scientific associations of Europe. BRONGNIART-BROWN. BRONGNIART (Adolphe Théodore), the son of the former, and professor of botany at the Garden of Plants, was born at Paris, January 14th 1801. He edited the botanical section of the "Annales des sciences naturelles," and contributed many able articles to that valuable work, as well as to the "Annales de la société d'histoire naturelle de Paris," and the "Annales du musée d'histoire naturelle." He has directed much of his attention to the subject of vegetable fossils, and published in 1821, when scarcely 20 years of age, an essay towards their classification, followed in 1828 by a "Prodrome d'une histoire des végétaux fossiles," and this again by the "Histoire des végétaux fossiles, ou recherches botaniques et géologiques sur les végétaux renfermés dans les diverses couches du globe" (1828-42). His merits as a vegetable physiologist are highly appreciated by all who are competent to judge of them. BROUGHAM.* In addition to the subjects previously enumerated, on which the powers of this eminent individual have been chiefly exercised, may be mentioned the repeal of the corporation and test acts, and the emancipation of the catholics. On the accession of the Whigs to power, at the close of the year 1830, he was created a peer, by the title of baron Brougham and Vaux, and appointed Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain. While presiding in this capacity in the House of Lords, various opportunities were afforded him of further distinguishing himself, which he did especially by his speech, in 1831, on the Reform Bill. In the exercise of the legal functions of his office, he at the same period exhibited the most untiring activity; correcting many abuses that had grown up in the court of chancery, as well as dispatching, in the course of a single year, all the causes still pending in this court for adjudication. It was chiefly through his instrumentality that the procedure, in relation to bankrupts, was essentially improved. In pressing this measure to a conclusion, without regard, too, to the decided opposition of the lawyers, he evinced a remarkable disinterestedness, since the effect of it was to subtract as much as £7000 sterling from his own income. The Whigs, having gone out of office in 1834, were restored to it once more in 1835; but Lord Brougham, having in the mean time given dissatisfaction to William IV. and the leaders of the Whig party generally, was not invited to a seat in the new cabinet. Being thus in a great measure separated from party connexions, he has 131 not merely acted an independent part, but occasionally a very eccentric one, which has affected materially the respect for his judgment, before, very generally, entertained in Great Britain, and has left him with scarcely any influence upon the public mind.-In 1838, he published a collection of his most important speeches in 4 volumes, and in 1839, "Sketches of Statesmen in the time of George III." BROUSSAIS* was appointed, in 1832, professor of general pathology and therapeutics in the medical faculty of Paris. He was subsequently elected a member of the Institute. And he died, on the 17th of November 1838, at his country-seat, at Vitry, in Champagne. For an account of his life and opinions, Montègre's "Notice historique sur la vie, les travaux, et les opinions de Broussais" may be consulted. BROWN (Major-General Jacob) was born in Bucks county, Pennsylvania, where his ancestors for several generations had been members of the Society of Friends. His father was a respectable farmer, who, however, not content with the moderate income which his occupation afforded him, embarked in commercial enterprises that, proving unsuccessful, deprived him entirely of his property. When this happened, young Brown, though only about 16 years old, applied himself manfully to the task of making his own way in the world. From 18 to 21 years of age, he taught a school at Crosswicks in New Jersey, devoting, during the same period, his leisure time most assiduously to the improvement of his mind. He next spent two years in the neighbourhood of Cincinnati, being employed in surveying the public lands. Going to the city of New York in 1798, he once more, but for a few months only, taught a public school. There, too, he commenced the study of the law, but soon abandoned it, not finding it congenial with his tastes. Having purchased some land in that part of the state of New York which is now embraced within the limits of Jefferson county, near Lake Ontario and the river St. Lawrence, he established himself upon it, in 1799, while wholly uncultivated. The new settlement made a rapid progress; and Gene. ral Brown distinguished himself as an enlightened and practical cultivator, as well as by the ability and energy with which he prosecuted the measures best adapted to pro mote the improvement of the country.-In 1809, he was appointed to the command of a regiment of militia, and, in 1811, promoted to the rank of a brigadier-general. At the beginning of the war with Great Britain in June 1812, General Brown was entrusted with the command of a brigade, in the first detachment of New York militia which was called into the service of the United States, and was charged with the defence of the frontier from Oswego to Lake St. Francis, a distance of nearly 200 miles. He had speedily an opportunity of distinguishing himself by his bravery and skill in the defence of Ogdensburg on the 4th of October. With a force of less than 400 men, he succeeded in repelling the attack of 800 well-appointed British troops. After the expiration of his term of service, he returned to his residence at Brownville. The government, however, highly appreciating the military qualifications of General Brown, and unwilling to lose his services even for a season, tendered to him the appointment of a colonel in the regular army,-an offer declined by him, from an unwillingness to fall from the rank which he already held. In the spring of the year 1813, the important post of Sackett's Harbour, having been left with only 400 regular troops for its defence, was threatened by the enemy. Colonel Backus, who commanded this force, and who had been merely a few days on the ground, and was unacquainted with the neighbouring localities, sent to General Brown, residing, as he did, not farther than 8 miles from Sackett's Harbour, to invite him to come with as large a body of the militia as he could collect, and take the command of the post. Brown hesitated not a moment in complying. The threatened attack was made, and defeated by the resolute valour of the Americans, disposed and directed by their leader with admirable judgment and skill. The government, a few months afterwards, appointed him a brigadier-general in the United States army. He partook in the unsuccessful expedition in the autumn of this year (1813), down the St. Lawrence, against Montreal, and, at French Creek, repulsed, with his own brigade, a considerable force sent from Kingston to impede his progress. He was the officer of the day on passing the British fort of Prescott, and the safety of the army is to be attributed, on that occasion, in a great measure to his able conduct. During the whole course of the expedition, indeed, he was distinguished for the ability with which he performed the duties assigned to him. Soon after the retreat of the troops from Canada, in November, General Brown was invested with the chief command of them, by the sickness of General Wilkinson, and the absence from their posts of the other officers, his seniors; and, early in the year 1814, he was promoted to the rank of a major-general. Through his exertions, and that of a number of efficient officers under his orders, the spirits of the troops were, in the course of the following winter, in a remarkable degree revived, and their discipline also exceedingly improved. The enemy having, in the mean time, obtained possession of fort Niagara, and being in considerable force on the opposite shore, a determination was once more formed to remove the principal seat of the war to that frontier. In the spring of 1814, General Brown, accordingly, was directed to march with his division from French Mills, by the way of Sackett's Harbour, to Buf falo, and to take the chief command of the expedition intended to invade Canada. Stopping no longer at Buffalo than was requisite for making the necessary preparations, he led his troops across the Niagara river, and reduced Fort Erie. On the 5th of July, he fought the battle of Chippewa; and, on the 25th of the same month, another in the immediate vicinity of the falls; in both of which he was victorious against superior numbers. In the last of these actions, he was twice severely wounded, but did not quit the field until the victory was completed, although so enfeebled from loss of blood, as to require to be supported on his horse. After recovering from his wounds, we find him within the walls of Fort Erie, to which the American army had retired on the British receiving a preponderating reinforcement. The latter, in his absence, had made an ineffectual attempt to carry the fort by storm; but General Brown, not satisfied with acting on the defensive, made a sortie on the 17th of September, the day before the fire from the enemy's batteries was to commence. The besiegers were driven from their position, and their works were destroyed or rendered unserviceable; and this was accomplished, too, with a force of 2000 against nearly 4000 men. An end, soon after this, was put to the war, by the treaty of Ghent; and General Brown, who remained on the peace establishment of the army, was appointed to the command of the northern military division. In 1821, he became commanderin-chief; from which time, till his death, on the 24th of February 1828, he resided at Washington city. The disease of which he died is said to have been a consequence of another contracted by him at Fort Erie, during the war, and from the effects of which he had never since been wholly ex BROWN. empted.-General Brown possessed, in an eminent degree, the various qualifications requisite for being a successful military chief. To great personal bravery, he united a moral courage, that on no emergency was found to waver; and to an excellent judgment in determining the objects it was in his power to accomplish with the means at his disposal, and skill in combining his measures, he added great firmness and decision of character, an untiring activity, and the faculty of gaining the respect and confidence of those with whom he had intercourse, and especially of all subjected to his authority. Nothing, in short, seems to have been wanting to give him a place in the foremost rank of military commanders, excepting a longer period, and a wider field, of action. 133 her place as one of the States of the Union, Governor Shelby appointed him Secretary of State of the new commonwealth. Sometime after, he was compelled, by the condition of his health, though a man of remarkable frame and proportions, and great bodily vigour, to seek a milder climate; and Louisiana having been just before ceded, by the French republic, to the United States, that it might not fall into the hands of the English upon the rupture of the treaty of Amiens, Mr. Brown, along with gentlemen of his profession from various parts of the country, repaired to New Orleans, where an abundant professional reward awaited them;-the old Spanish tribunals of the Territory having dammed up, and accumulated in the courts, prodigious quantities of valuable property, BROWN (James),-Senator of the United of all kinds, which our tribunals, their States, Minister to France, and an emi- successors, in the administration of justice, nent lawyer of Kentucky, and also of Loui- forthwith proceeded to distribute among siana, -was born near Staunton, in Virgi- the owners and claimants, with American nia, on the 11th of September 1766. His activity. Mr. Brown continued his career father, the Rev. John Brown, a clergyman at the bar, without any cessation from a of the Presbyterian Church, married Mar- large and lucrative practice, until the begaret Preston, second daughter of John ginning of the year 1813, when he was Preston, who removed to Western Vir-elected a Senator in Congress from Loui ginia in the year 1740, and there esta-siana. He had held, at New Orleans, blished a family destined to spread, thrive, under the appointment of Mr. Jefferson, and multiply, to a surprising degree;-his and until he resigned it, the office of Dis. descendants, under the names of Preston, | trict Attorney of the United States. He Breckenridge, Brown, Blair, Humphreys, took his seat in the Senate on the 5th Craighead, Madison, McDowell, Floyd, February 1813, where he supported the Marshall, Howard, Wickliffe, &c. &c., war against Great Britain, and the meaabounding in Virginia, Kentucky, Tennes-sures, generally, of President Madison. see, and other Southern and Western States, and a large proportion of them being successful and prominent persons. James Brown, who was one of twelve or more children, received his education at William and Mary College; and, after studying law under the well known George Wythe, left home to seek his professional fortune in Kentucky, whither he had been preceded by an elder brother, John Brown, who represented Kentucky, in the House of Representatives and Senate of the United States, about twenty years. To the practice of this brother, when called from professional to political Mr. Brown was a man of talent, of life, he succeeded; and soon rose to emi- sound sense, enlarged views, knowledge nence amid the formidable competition of of mankind, and scrupulous, even anxious such men as Clay, Rowan, Nicholas, Tal- integrity. As a speaker, he was bold, bot, Breckenridge, and others, at that day, ready, rapid, and fluent; with a power of ornaments of the Kentucky bar. In 1791, sarcasm that was remarkable. In private he commanded a company of mounted life, he used his ample means, the product riflemen, and performed his part with cre- of his own professional labours, munifidit, under Gen. Charles Scott, who made cently, in acts of private generosity, and a successful expedition against the Indians, in a hospitality which, aided by uncommon encountering and routing them near the social powers, made his house, whether in Wabash. In 1792, when Kentucky took | New Orleans, in Washington, or in Paris, His senatorial term expired on the 4th March 1817. In December 1819, he was re-elected a Senator, and, on the 8th December 1823, was nominated, by Mr. Monroe, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary to France. He remained in that country on his mission, the duties of which he filled with general approbation, until the autumn of 1829; when, at his urgent request, he was permitted to return home to private life, which he never again relinquished for public honours. He died at Philadelphia, on the 7th of April 1835. the resort of accomplished society. He married Miss Hart, a daughter of Col. Thomas Hart, of Lexington, Ky., and a sister of Mrs. Clay. BROWN (Robert), perhaps the most distinguished living botanist, was born in 1781. By the recommendation of Sir Joseph Banks, he was appointed, when only 20 years of age, to be the botanist of the expedition under the command of Captain Flinders, which was fitted out by the British government to explore the coasts of New Holland. When Flinders was obliged to direct his course homewards, on account of the damaged condition of his vessel, Brown, with his draughtsman, Ferd. Bauer, remained in that part of the world, and were the first Europeans who visited many regions then in a state of nature, but now covered with flourishing colonies. Proceeding then to Van Diemen's land and the islands in Bass's straits, they returned to England, in 1805, with a collection of not less than 4000 new species of plants. The description and classification of these served to occupy Brown for several years. The result of his labours appeared in 1810 under the title of "Prodromus flore Nova Hollandiæ, etc.," a work which at once attracted the general attention of naturalists, and established his reputation, throughout Europe, as a botanist; although, in his own opinion, it was so far from fulfilling the design he had proposed to accomplish, that he afterwards even endeavoured to suppress it. With a natural partiality for a province of botanical science, which he had rendered, so to speak, his peculiar property, he published, in 1814, "General remarks on the Botany of Terra Austra lis," together with an essay on the distribution of the different families of plants in New Holland, and in 1830, a "Supplementum primum floræ Novæ Hollandiæ, etc., the materials for which were furnished by the herbariums of later travellers. Besides these original publications, his high character as a botanist led to many applications for his assistance in preparing the parts of the works of others, relating to the plants which they had collected and brought to Europe. In this manner he became the author of the botanical portions in the accounts of the polar expeditions of Ross, Parry, and Edw. Sabine, and also contributed his aid to Dr. Richardson, the companion of Captain Franklin. He described also, from time to time, the herbarium collected by Horsfield (180215) in the island of Java, and the plants collected by Salt in Abyssinia, by Oudney and Clapperton in the interior of Africa, | and by Smith, who accompanied Captain Tuckey in his voyage up the river Congo. -It has ever been the study of Brown to exhibit his views in as simple a manner as was possible, and to avoid all innovations excepting such as seemed to him to be absolutely necessary. He has, notwithstanding, contributed much for distinguishing accurately between families of plants previously known, and for defining with exactness the characteristic properties of those which have been newly formed. And he has also made various discoveries in vegetable physiology. BRUNEL (Sir Mark Isambert), the constructor of the famous Thames tunnel, was born in 1769, at Hacqueville, in the French department of the Eure, and was educated first at the college of Gisors, and then, being destined by his father for the pulpit, at the seminary of Nicaise. Exhibiting, however, a total disinclination to theological studies, his father at length consented to his entering the navy in 1786, although he himself would have preferred the profession of a civil engineer. Then came the revolution; and Brunel emigrated from France in consequence, like many others of his countrymen. He arrived at New York in 1793, where he applied himself with zeal to his favourite subject of mechanics, and to those branches of science and art which are connected with it. He soon obtained employment as the superintendent of a cannon foundry, and he was also, it is said, employed in fortifying the harbour. But, in 1799, he went to England, and has remained there ever since. In 1806, he completed the construction, at Portsmouth, of an ingenious machine for the fabricating of pulleys for the use of the British navy,—a machine the importance of which was estimated so highly by the admiralty, that the sum of £20,000 sterling was granted as a compensation for the services rendered by him. His reputation as a mechanist and engineer was now fully established, and henceforth he found abundant occupation in various public works. The most remarkable of these is, without doubt, the Thames tunnel, the plan for which was furnished by him as early as the year 1819, but which was begun in 1825, finished in 1842, and first opened to the public on the 25th of March 1843.-Brunel is vice-president of the Royal Society of London, and was created a baronet in 1841. BRUNET* (Jacques Charles). The "Manuel du libraire, etc.," of this learned bibliographer has been followed, in 1834, by the "Nouvelles recherches bibliographiques |