CACHUCHA-CAJEPUT OIL. an old Spanish ballad, and composed of the steps of the bolero and the fandango. The principal difficulty in executing it well consists more in the proper and graceful performance of the movements of the head, arms, and upper part of the body, than of those of the feet. It has acquired very general celebrity through Fanny Elsler; who first danced it, with an extraordinary effect, in "Le diable boiteux," and who, in dancing it, has far transcended all her imitators. 145 campaign of Russia, he held the office at Paris of secretary of state; and we next hear of him as accompanying the empress, in 1814, in her flight from the capital, to Blois on the Loire. He became a peer on Napoleon's return from Elba; but, after the hundred days, was obliged to retreat from public life, till 1819, when he was once more preferred to the peerage by Louis XVIII. He died in 1834. CAFFEIN; a bitter, crystallizable substance contained in coffee, and a portion CADMIUM, a metal discovered by Stro- of which volatilizes when coffee is roasted. meyer at Göttingen, in 1818. Its appear- It has not been applied to any use. ance is much like that of tin. Its specific CAILLÉ* (René). His papers were argravity is about 9; and it fuses and vola-ranged, and their contents published, by tilizes at a temperature a little below that Jomard, under the title of "Journal d'un at which tin melts. Its ores are associated voyage à Tembouctou et à Jennée dans with those of zinc. Its equivalent num-l'Afrique centrale, etc.," (3 vols. 1830). ber is 56. With oxygen it forms an ox-He died in the neighbourhood of Paris, ide, composed of 56 parts of cadmium and May 25th 1838, without having returned 8 parts of oxygen. Its scarcity prevents to Africa, after the year 1828, as it was its employment in the arts; but the oxide his design to do. has been used as a pigment. CAILLIAUD* was appointed, in 1827, Conservator of the Museum of Natural History at Nantes. In 1832, he published a work entitled "Recherches sur les arts et métiers, les usages de la vie civile et domestique des anciens peuples de l'Égypte, de la Nubie et de l'Éthiopie" (2 vols. 1832). CADORE (Jean Baptiste Nompère de Champagny, duke of) was born at Roanne in France, in 1756. Entering the navy, he was rapidly promoted, and attained to the rank of captain at a comparatively early age. In the beginning of the revolution, he was chosen a deputy to the CAIRO.* The commerce of Cairo has, States General by the nobility of Forez; in late years, very much declined; owing, and he was one of the nobles who, by among other causes, to the system of mouniting themselves with the representa- nopoly adopted by Mehemed Ali, the ratives of the third estate, decided the merg-pacity of his government, the insecurity ing of the separate estates into a single National Assembly. In 1791, he retired from the assembly, and from public life. During the reign of terror, however, he was suspected of holding anti-republican opinions, and was thrown into prison, where he remained until the 9th of Thermidor. The 18th of Brumaire opened for him anew a political career; he became a counsellor of state in the department of the Marine. In 1801, he was appointed ambassador to the court of Vienna; in 1804, minister of the Interior; and in 1807, minister of Foreign Affairs. In this last of fice, he was entrusted with those negotiations with the Spanish court, which led, in 1808, to the abdication of Charles IV. and Ferdinand VII., and to the invasion of Spain by the French armies. He was made duke of Cadore, by Napoleon, in the same year; and in 1809, after the conclusion of the war with Austria, it was he who negotiated the marriage of the emperor with the archduchess Maria Louisa. In 1811, he retired from the ministry of Foreign Affairs, and became intendant of the domains of the crown. During the VOL. XIV.-19 of property, the corruption of the courts of law, together with the practice of transporting all the produce to Alexandria to be disposed of,-a practice which has led to the removal to that city of many of the principal merchants. Three caravans still arrive annually at Cairo, from Mourzouk, Sennaar, and Darfour. The principal commodity brought by them is slaves, 10,000 being sold every year. A considerable number of Georgian slaves are also publicly exposed in the markets for sale.Two English hotels have been opened for travellers since the steam communication with India has been established; but neither steam conveyances nor railroads, though much talked of, have yet come into operation to aid the commerce of Cairo. The only Egyptian steamboat on the Nile is the private property of the pacha, and is reserved for his own use.-For the institutions established by Mehemed Ali for manufacturing purposes, and for the education of his subjects, see Mohammed Ali; and also Egypt, (Sup.) CAJEPUT OIL* is highly pungent and aromatic. It is a powerful stimulant and 146 CAJEPUT OIL-CALLISEN. diaphoretic; is used, in medicine, as a remedy for the gout, and as a vermifuge; and has been much extolled as a remedy in the Asiatic cholera, though other essential oils would probably be quite as effectual. It is also sometimes employed to destroy vermin. CALAMANDER WOOD, a species of timber, of late years brought to Great Britain from the island of Ceylon, where, on account of its scarcity, it is an expensive article. It is remarkable for the variety and admixture of colours which it exhibits, and is so hard that common edge-tools cannot work it, so that it must be rasped and almost ground into shape. On account of its costliness, it has not been imported for sale, but only by private gentlemen, who have been in Ceylon, for their own use. It is the most beautiful among the fancy woods. The nearer it is taken from the root of the tree, the finer it is. CALCIUM, the metallic base of lime, discovered by Sir Humphry Davy in 1808. See Lime. CALCUTTA is situated on the left or eastern bank of the Hoogly river. Its population in 1822 was 179,917, exclusive of that of the suburbs. In 1837, it amounted to 229,714, of whom only 84,803 were females: of the whole number, 137,651 were Hindoos; 58,744 Mohammedans; 3133 English; 3181 Portuguese; 636 Armenians; 362 Chinese; 307 Jews; and 165 Frenchmen. A great part, however, of what may fairly be considered the population of Calcutta, consisting of labourers, mechanics, and persons engaged in trade, reside at night in the suburbs or neighbouring villages; coming into town early in the morning to their respective employments. These have been estimated to amount to from 100,000 to 150,000 persons. Calcutta is now, Canton perhaps only excepted, the greatest commercial emporium of the East; the gross amount of its imports and exports amounting to from £10,000,000 to £12,000,000 a year. | -The native Portuguese and Armenian merchants have latterly been declining both in wealth and importance; while, on the other hand, the Parsees have increased in numbers and opulence, and there are several of them possessing a capital of £250,000. * CALIFORNIA (Gulph of) is famed for its pearl fishery, which, in the 17th century, was very productive. It occupied, at that period, as many as 800 divers. At present, there are from 15 to 18 small vessels annually employed in the gulph, each of which obtains, in favourable sea sons, from 500 to 1000 dollars' worth of pearls. CALIFORNIA* (New). The population of this region is very scanty, and composed for the most part of Indians; about one half of whom, or 18,000 of them, are distributed among 21 villages or stations, under the charge of the Franciscan missionaries. The men are employed in agricultural labours, or in the warehouses and laboratories of the mission; the women are occupied in spinning, grinding corn, and other domestic duties. All are fed and clothed by the friars, to whom they are in fact slaves. Their condition is, of course, superior to that of their race who remain in the savage state; at the same time, deprived, as they have been, of the right of private property, it is not at all singular that they should have made only an inconsiderable progress in civilization. There are about 5000 colonists, or soldiers of Spanish or Mexican descent, who are settled in several small towns, or occupy military posts, intended for the protection of the missions.-The vine and olive are said to thrive here more than in any other portion of America: the latter, indeed, is represented as being produced in a state of great perfection; and it is not improbable that New California may, at a time not very remote, become celebrated for the excellence of its wines. At present, however, cattle constitute the staple produce of the country. CALIFORNIA * (Old). Its population probably does not exceed 15,000, mostly Indians, who are of a character very much resembling that of the Indians of New California, and are distributed very much in the same manner. The missions here were originally established, so long ago as the year 1642, by the Jesuits; who have since been succeeded by the Dominicans. These acting on the same system as their Franciscan brethren have since done in the adjoining region, and having had to deal with a yet more degraded race of savages, their permanent success has been even less. CALLISEN (Adolphus Charles Peter), born April 8th 1786, at Glückstadt, in Holstein, was the nephew of Henry Callisen, noticed in a previous volume. After receiving his preparatory education in his native town and in Keil, he studied medicine during the years 1803 and 1804, at the university of the last-mentioned place. In 1805, he went to Copenhagen for the purpose of completing his medical studies. He was appointed a surgeon in the Danish army in 1808; and in the following year, CALLISEN-CAMPEACHY, set out on an extensive tour through Germany, Switzerland, Italy, France, and Holland. After his return to Copenhagen, he was appointed successively to various medical or surgical offices, especially, in 1816, extraordinary professor, and in 1829, ordinary professor, in the Academy of Surgery; and in addition to this office, he became librarian, in the same institution, in 1830. He is well known in the medical world by his dictionary of living physicians, surgeons, &c. (Medicinische Schriftstellerlexikon der jetzt lebenden Ärzte, Geburtshelfer, Apotheker, und Naturforscher aller gebildeten Völker) in 25 volumes; and to which he has added a supplement in 8 volumes more, bringing the work down very nearly to the present day. CAMBRIDGE,* in England. Population in 1821, 14,142; in 1831, 20,917; and in 1841, 24,453. The number of members composing the senate of the university, in 1839, was 2705; that of members on the boards of the colleges was 5628. The professorships amount at present to 24; the last one, founded in 1828, being that of Political Economy. CAMBRIDGE* (duke of). After the disturbances at Göttingen, in 1831, he was appointed viceroy of Hanover. In 1833, he introduced into that kingdom the constitution granted by William IV., and continued to administer the government, in a faithful conformity to it, until the year 1837; when, in consequence of the death of William IV., and the accession of queen Victoria to the British throne, the duke of Cumberland became king of Hanover. He returned to England; having earned, by his mildness, good sense, and integrity, the esteem and respect of the people over whom he had exercised authority. 147 other publications of his later years were a "Life of Mrs. Siddons" (2 vols. 1834); a "Life of Petrarch" (2 vols. 1841); and the "Life and Times of Frederick the Great," a work of which he professed to be only the editor (4 vols. 1841-43); and the “PiÏgrim of Glencoe," a poem (1842). — In 1842, he made a visit to Germany; and, in 1843, he retired to Boulogne, where he died on the 15th of June 1844. His body was brought over to England, and interred in Westminster Abbey, near the centre of Poet's Corner, close to the tomb of Addison. nent advocates at the English bar, was CAMPBELL (Lord), one of the most emiborn in 1778, at Cupar, in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh. After studying in the university of that city, he went to London; where, for several years, he was a reporter for the "Morning Chronicle." He was called to the bar in 1807; and was not long in acquiring an extensive practice, and a high reputation, as a lawyer. While engaged as such, he found leisure to prepare and publish reports of the principal cases decided in the courts of King's Bench and Common Pleas. In 1822, immediately after his marriage with the daughter of Lord Abinger, he obtained a seat in Parliament, and distingushed himself by his able advocacy of the principles and doctrines of the Whig party, to which he had attached himself. On the accession of the Whigs to power, he was appointed attorney-general. became chancellor of Ireland; a post, In 1841, he however, which he quitted, after only a short period, on the return of the Tories to office; but which he had held long enough to win the respect of the Irish people, in despite of the prejudice at first entertained, by many among them, against him, as a Scotsman. He was elevated to the peerin the last-mentioned year. 66 ma-age CAMBRONNE* was appointed, by Louis XVIII., in 1820, to be commandant of the fortress of Lille, with the rank of a réchal de camp;" which office he, however, resigned in 1824, on account of the shattered condition of his health. He died March 5th 1826, CAMPBELL* (Thomas). In 1830, when he suffered the loss of his wife, he resigned the editorship of the "New Monthly Magazine.” In the following year, however, he established the " Metropolitan Magazine;" but retained its management in his own hands only a short time. He went to Algiers in 1832, and gave an account of that country, in a series of papers published in the "Metropolitan Magazine;" and which were afterwards collected and reprinted, in two volumes 8vo., under the title of "Letters from the South." The CAMPEACHY* has lately been the scene of civil war. When, in 1842, Yucatan, the province in which it is situated, ventured to assume a revolutionary attitude in relation to Mexico, a Mexican force marched against it; but, although some advantages were at first obtained over the troops which advanced from the town on the 24th of November of that year, the Mexicans were defeated and forced to retreat in the following January. Another Mexican force, after gaining possession of Chica, February 1st 1843, undertook to renew the attempt which had so lately miscarried. It was, however, encountered on its way to Campeachy by the enemy, under General Llergo, and totally defeated. 148 CAMPEACHY-CANADA. in a wretched condition. Encouraged by this success, the people | those in existence being for the most part of Yucatan resolved to declare their entire independence on Mexico; assuming then, for the first time, a peculiar national flag. CAMPHENE or CAMPHOGEN, a term applied by chemists to a hydrocarbon, composed of 10 atoms of carbon 60, and 8 of hydrogen = 8; and therefore represented by the equivalent number 68. It is identical with pure oil of turpentine. Camphor is its protoxide; that substance being composed of 68 camphogen and 8 oxygen; and therefore represented by the equivalent number 76. CANADA. The population of Lower Canada, in 1836, was 664,631, chiefly of French origin; of Upper Canada, at the same period, 371,332, chiefly of British origin.—The number of immigrants from Great Britain, who landed at the port of Quebec, in the nine years ending with 1838, amounted to 263,089, of whom 165,000 proceeded to the upper province; but of the whole number, from 50 to 60 per cent. re-emigrated, after a short residence, to the United States. The greatest number who arrived in any one year was in 1832, when 51,746 landed at Quebec; the smallest number was in 1838, when 4992 only reached that port. Within the period spoken of, there were also 50,000 estimated to have reached the provinces by way of New York and the Erie Canal; a like proportion of whom also re-emigrated. The two provinces have been united under one legislature, by an act of the British Parliament passed July 23d 1840. The imports into Lower Canada, in 1836, amounted in value to £1,941,053 sterling; and the exports to £1,034,514. These sums, however, do not include the extensive illicit trade which is carried on with the United States. In addition to the colleges and schools of the higher order under the management of the Catholic clergy, a college has been established, by the government of the colony, at Toronto; but this has been accomplished, it is much to be regretted, only by diverting to this object funds originally set apart for the support of schools throughout the country. There have been occasionally grants by the Legislature for the purposes of education; but the schools are few, and of an inferior kind, even in the best settled districts; and in the remoter ones there are none. Nor has any considerable degree of attention been bestowed by the government on the material interests of the colony, there being even a deficiency of roads where they are most wanted, and Since the American revolution, the administration of none of the British colonies has given more trouble to the government at home than that of Canada. Besides the increasing number of inhabitants, which alone would, sooner or later, have led to the assertion of a claim, on their part, to a greater influence in the affairs of the colony than had been allowed them in an earlier stage of their progress, there were peculiar circumstances, springing out of a difference of race, to which the effect in question is attributable. When, in 1763, the country was ceded to Great Britain, the whole of it, then constituting the province of Quebec, contained only a population of about 70,000 persons, all of whom, with a very few exceptions merely, were the descendants of Frenchmen. With the object in view of assimilating their character to that of Englishmen, a task which, aided, as it would be, by the expected emigration from the British islands to the colony, appeared by no means a difficult one, the system of English jurisprudence and judicial procedure, both civil and criminal, was substituted for that previously existing, and the use of the English was to be preferred to that of the French language in the business of the courts. The dissatisfaction, which these measures occasioned, was scarcely in any degree mitigated by the promise, at the same time made, of bestowing upon the Canadians a popular legislature, without whose consent no taxes should be imposed. They had been, from the first settlement of their ancestors in America, accustomed to an absolute rule, and were wholly unprepared for the exercise of the privilege of self-government. As the discontents, however, of the British North American colonies, now the United States, were gathering to a head, and threatening a rup ture with the parent country, the British government deemed it expedient to secure, if possible, the attachment to it of its Canadian subjects, by retracing its steps to a certain extent. By the act of 1774, called the Quebec act, the law was thenceforth, in all civil cases, to be administered as it had been before the year 1763; with this reservation, however, that the settlers on such lands as, before that period, were not a portion of any seigneurie, should continue to be subject to the administration of English justice. Limited as this conces sion thus was, yet being accompanied by the abolition of the old French taxes, and the substitution in their place of others with opinions and feelings disqualifying them, for most useful purposes, from cooperating_harmoniously together, to any extent. But another cause of contention and difficulty, involved in the new constitutions, was the very dissimilar organization of the different branches of the same legislature. Emanating, as these did respectively, from two such opposite sources as the king in England and the people in America, disagreements between them were not only apt to arise, but when they did so, there was no provision of any kind for their being accommodated or compro can practically continue to maintain his post with a majority, however small, against him in the House of Commons, in Canada, on the contrary, both the governor and executive council, holding their places at the pleasure of the crown, were subject to no such control on the part of the assembly elected by the people. The legislative council was likewise appointed by the crown; and the circumstance of an individual being a member of the former council did not preclude him from being a member at the same time of this, inuch lighter, and less obnoxious in the mode of their collection, and which, it was enacted, should be expended exclusively for the benefit of the colony, a general feeling of contentment was produced throughout the community. On the breaking out of the war between Great Britain and her other colonies, the Canadians, accordingly, remained unaffected by the example of their neighbours, and even co-operated with great zeal in the contest against them. In 1784, the Habeas Corpus act was extended to Canada; and, at length, in 1791, Mr. Pitt, in compliance with the promises long held out to the in-mised. While in England, no minister habitants, introduced a bill into Parliament, usually called the "constitution of 1791," bestowing upon them a representative system of government, at least in part. The province of Quebec was now for the first time divided into the two provinces of Upper and Lower Canada, each of which was to have its own separate executive and legislature, but formed on precisely the same model. There was to be in each a governor, an executive council, a legislative council or upper house, in imitation of the British House of Lords, all these appointed by the king,-and, which was, in fact, only an instrument lastly, an assembly composed of members in the hands of the executive for controlelected by the people. But these arrange- ling the action of the Legislature. The latments, in their practical operation, were ter, moreover, had no means of inquiring far from fulfilling the expectations of their into, or checking, the delinquencies of the author. Instead of contributing to secure, public officers, and did not possess the for the future, the attachment of the Ca- right of impeaching them before any imnadians to the British government, they partial tribunal. Under these circumcontained within themselves the germs of stances, it is not surprising, notwithstandthe dissensions and troubles which have ing the exclusive right of taxing themsince afflicted the colony. In the first selves was secured to the colonists by the place, the division of it, into the provinces constitution, that they should soon come of Upper and Lower Canada, had the ef- to look upon it as an instrument of oppres fect of marking more precisely than ever sion, rather than as a boon bestowed upon the distinction between the two races con- them for their benefit, and for which they stituting their population; since the for- ought to be grateful to the government of mer was inhabited chiefly by emigrants Great Britain. By the repeated collisions from Great Britain or Ireland, together which occurred between the Assembly and with the descendants of American loyal- the executive authority, first of Lower, and ists, whom the revolution of 1776 had in- then of Upper Canada also, and by the perduced to settle there; while the great ma- petal state of irritation kept up between jority of the inhabitants of the latter pro- them, the embarrassments, which were vince still consisted of French Canadians, experienced in the administration of the and was likely to continue to do so, in de- affairs of the provinces, were continually spite of every effort on the part of the go-aggravated, without any very decided meavernment to produce a different state of things. Instead, then, of the mingling and eventual confounding of the two races into one uniform mass, as might have been expected, under other circumstances, to happen, their peculiarities and mutual repugnancies were in a considerable degree perpetuated, and two legislative bodies were organized in contiguous colonies, sures being devised for applying a remedy to the evil. In proportion, too, as the British government omitted to concede anything to the wishes, or demands, of the Canadians, those demands were extended and multiplied; until they, at length, amounted to a claim to have a political constitution so altogether similar in its practical operation to that of England, as |